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Beverage Plants and Beverages
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Nonalcoholic
Beverages With Caffeine Coffee Coffee Varieties Coffee Cultivation Coffee
Production Tea Tea Cultivation
Tea Preparation Tea
Production & Consumption
Cocoa & Chocolate Cocoa Cultivation Cocoa Varieties Cocoa & Chocolate Preparation
Cocoa Production
& Consumption Maté Guarana Khat Cola Cassine Yoco Misc.
Nonalcoholic Beverages Fruit Juice
Soda Water
Alcoholic Beverages Fermented Beverages Wine Principal Wine
Varieties & Growing Areas
Germany Italy Hungary Spain Portugal
Madeira Australia
Chile United States
Beer Malting Beer
Brewing Beer Beer Varieties Misc.
Fermented Beverages Root Beer
Sake Palm Wine
Pulque Chicha Distilled Beverages Whisky
Brandy Rum Gin Liqueurs and Cordials Aperitifs
and Bitters
Agave Baobab
Coffee Kola Mammee Apple Mescal
Tea Tequila
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Nonalcoholic
Beverages With Caffeine Beverages with caffeine content are
used worldwide for their stimulating and refreshing qualities. Typically each ancient center of
civilization had its own beverage plants.
Coffee that originated in regions adjacent to Southwestern Asia is now
used by over half the world’s population.
Tea that is associated with Southeastern Asia is used by over half the
world population. Cocoa is a product
of tropical America and which today serves as booth food and drink for many
worldwide. There are other less known
beverages that are equally important.
These include maté, a principal drink in South America; cola, a
favorite beverage and masticatory in Africa; haat, used in Arab countries;
guarana, another South American drink that has higher caffeine content than
any other beverages. Caffeine is an alkaloid with
definite medicinal values. It acts as
a diuretic and nerve stimulant. It is
harmful in large quantities so it is present only in very small amounts,
rarely over two percent, in beverages.
Especially children should avoid excessive quantities of such
beverages. Coffee is one of the most
important beverage plants from a commercial viewpoint despite the fact that
tea is in wider usage. The coffee
plant is believed to be native to Abyssinia and coffee surely had been used
in that area since ancient times. It
was brought to Arabia in about the 16th Century and that area produced most
of the crop for 200 years. Coffee
gradually was introduced elsewhere in the world tropics. It reached Ceylon and Java by 1700, the
West Indies in 1720 and Brazil in 1770 (Hill 1952). Coffee began to be in general use about 1700. From Arabia it spread to Egypt and
Palestine and then to Constantinople.
It reached Venice in 1615, Paris in 1645 and London in 1650 (Hill
1952). In both France and England
coffee gained widespread popularity for a time and this led to the beginning
of the famous coffeehouses, gathering places of the literary people of the
day. <bot432> Kona Coffee (Coffea arabica L.), [Abyssinia], Kona Coast,
Hawaii <bot702> Coffee tree with fruit (Coffea arabica )
[Ethiopia] <bot1206>
-- Sketch of coffee plant with berries attached to stem (Coffea
arabica L.) (beverage) [Abyssinia] Coffee is in the genus Coffea that contains over
25 species, only three of which are of commercial importance. Arabian Coffee, Coffea
arabica, is the source of over 90 percent of the world’s supply. The plant is native to Abyssinia where it
occurs as a beautiful shrub or small tree, 15-20 ft in height. The smooth evergreen leaves are borne in
pairs. The white, fragrant, star like
flowers are clustered in the leaf axils.
The fruits, sometimes called “cherries,” are small fleshy berries that
change in color from green through yellow to red or crimson. The two greenish gray seeds are covered
with a thin membrane, the silver skin, and are enclosed in a dry husk like
parchment. When only one seed
develops the fruit is known as “pea berry,” and commands a higher price. Coffee is definitely a tropical crop and
requires a hot humid climate. It is
restricted to regions lying between 25 deg. North and 25 deg. South
latitude. It needs at least 50 in. of
rainfall and does best with 75-120 in.
High humus content is desirable.
The plant is very susceptible to diseases. There are over 18 kinds of Arabian coffee under
cultivation. One of them, Mocha Coffee, is a small-seeded variety that is
grown in the Red Sea region and is highly prized. Congo Coffee, Coffea
robusta, is a larger and more vigorous plant with thick leaves. It bears very heavily and is much more
hardy and thus is adapted to a wider range of climates. It is native to the Congo region of Africa
cut is also cultivated elsewhere. It
constitutes a great part of the coffee grown in Indonesia. The quality of Congo coffee is inferior to
that of Arabian coffee. Liberian Coffee, Coffea
liberica, is native to the west coast of Africa. The tree is much larger reaching a height
of 40-50 ft and with fruits 1 in. in diameter. The plant is more vigorous and les susceptible to disease. This coffee is used primarily in blends
for the flavor and aroma are inferior to the other two species. Coffee
Cultivation and Preparation Coffee can be grown in the tropics
from sea level to an altitude of 6,000 ft. and thrives best at the higher
elevations with 4,500 ft being optimum.
Under cultivation the plants are grown directly from seed, or
seedlings are transplanted at 6-foot intervals. Shading and continuous weeding are essential, and catch crops
are often grown. The plants begin to
bear in their third year with the best yield obtained from the fifth year
until about 30 years. The coffee berries are generally picked individually by
hand when fully ripe, although in Arabia and parts of Brazil they are
stripped off or allowed to fall to the ground. After picking and sifting or winnowing to remove the debris,
coffee is prepared for the market by either the dry or the wet procedure. In the former the berries are spread out
on drying floors and exposed to the sun with precautions taken to protect
them from the rain. The berries are
constantly stirred so that they will dry uniformly. Eventually the dried skin and pulp are cleaned off by machinery
and the parchment is removed by pounding in a mortar or by mechanical
means. In the wet method the berries
are run through a pulping machine that removes the skin and part of the
pulp. They are then placed in vats
where the remainder of the pulp ferments and can be washed off. They are finally dried by the sun or
artificial heat. The color of the
finished product depends on the amount of moisture. After drying the brittle parchment is cracked and removed by
hulling machines and the silver skin is rubbed off in polishing machines. The seeds or “coffee beans” are then
gr4aded and packed in burlap bags for shipment. Sometimes coffee is exported with the parchment still intact. Eventually the beans are roasted in a
process that results in a loss in weight but a gain in bulk and which is
accompanied by many physiological changes.
The aroma, flavor and color develop during the roasting process. No two varieties require the same amount
of roasting and there are many differences in the temperature used and the
duration of the process. Before
coffee is sold it is usually ground.
Trade coffee is often made up of different blends. The roasted coffee beans contain 0.75-1.5
percent caffeine and a volatile, Caffeol, which is
responsible for the aroma and flavor.
Glucose, dextrin, proteins and fatty oil are also present. The oil tends to become rancid if coffee
is stored unrefrigerated. Coffee
Production and Consumption Arabia first led in coffee production but was replaced
in turn by the West Indies, java and Brazil.
Sri Lanka was an important producer from 1830-1875 when the industry
was destroyed by blight. Brazil then
became the predominant producer with over 50 percent of the world’s
supply. This then diminished and
other areas of the Western Hemisphere began to increase coffee acreage. About 85 percent of the world’s coffee was
being grown in the Western Hemisphere by the 21st Century. Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Costa Rico,
Guatemala, El Salvador and Haiti are most important. Jamaica coffee with low acreage is
probably the most expensive and of the best quality. Central American coffees are milder in
flavor and richer bodied. There are many ways of using coffee. In Turkey coffee grounds mixed with sugar
are consumed, and Turkish coffee is a thick and syrupy concoction. In Sumatra coffee leaves are steeped and
yield a wholesome and good-flavored beverage. Coffee extract and soluble coffee as well as decaffeinated coffee
are widely available. Coffee is
frequently adulterated, usually with chicory, the roasted and ground roots of
the chicory plant. In Europe
coffee-containing chicory is often preferred to the pure product. Substitutes for coffee have also been used,
such as Postum and other cereal beverages that are made from roasted barley
or wheat and which lack caffeine. The pulp and parchment waste products are used for
fertilizer, fuel and in the manufacture of cafelite, a plastic material with
good insulating properties. Tea, Camellia sinensis, native to Assam India
and China, is the most popular caffeine beverage in the world. It is prepared from the dried leaves. In China it was originally valued only for
medicinal properties, but since the 5th Century it has been the principal
beverage. The word “tea:” is
from “te” that is used in one of the Chinese dialects in place of the
more universal “cha.” Tea
arrived in Japan around 1,000 A.D. It
was known in Europe in the 16th Century but did not become widely used until
the 17th Century (Hill 1952).
Although London is the great tea market of the world, the prominence
of tea drinking in England came about only during the 19th Century. <bot628> Tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Ktze]
[China] plantation in
central Uganda The plant is a small tree but
under cultivation it grows as a shrub, 3-4 ft. tall. The leathery lanceolate leaves have a
serrated margin and numerous oil glands.
The white or pinkish flowers are produced in the leaf axils and give
rise to capsular fruits. Constant
pruning stimulates the vigorous development of new shoots, and these
“flushes” are the source of the commercial product. Tea grows best under tropical or
hot temperate regions. The nature of
the plant and the methods of cultivation vary with the locality. Over 1,000 varieties are known. The plant is propagated from seed or
seedlings. The yield may vary from
200-1,000 lbs. per acre and continues for over 50 years. In Japan there are records of a single
plant living for 200 years. Tea can
be grown from sea level to about 5,000 ft.
Often steep slopes and soil that is too poor for other types of
agriculture are used. In China there
is much tea grown on small farms and is prepared for market by primitive
methods. In Sri Lanka tea is
cultivated on large plantations and the most modern mechanical methods are
used in its preparation. Tea leaves are picked by hand or
with scissors and an expert can pick from 25-75 lbs. per day. In China where growth stops during the
winter only 3-4 pickings a year are possible. In hotter climates, such as Sri Lanka, where growth continues
throughout the year, as many as 25-30 pickings can be made. The first picking is usually made when the
plants are five years old. The grade
of tea depends on the age of the leaves.
In golden tips the youngest bud only is used; in orange
pekoe the smallest leaf; in pekoe the second leaf; in pekoe-souchong
the third leaf; in souchong the fourth leaf; and in congou the
5th and longest leaf is gathered. The
flavor and quality vary with the soil, climate, age of the leaf, time of
picking and method of preparation. Preparation of tea from the fresh
leaves generally is as follows: The
leaves are first exposed to the sun or heated in shallow trays until they
become soft and pliable. Then they
are rolled by hand or by machine.
This curls the leaves and removes some of the sap. Finally the curled and twisted leaves are
completely dried in the sun, over fires or in a current of hot air. In the final product, called green tea,
the dried leaves are dull green with an even texture and quality. In making black tea, the leaves are
fermented after rolling by covering them and keeping them warm. This causes them to lose their green color
and changes their flavor. After
fermentation the leaves are dried in the usual manner. Sometimes the way tea is shipped after
fermentation alters its flavor. Some
of the highest quality teas have had their flavor created during long voyages
at sea. Both green and black tea is produced in China. In Japan mostly green tea is produced and
in India and Sri Lanka chiefly black tea is made. In Taiwan the oolong tea is produced. This is only partially fermented and is
intermediate between black and green tea, with the color of the former and
the flavor of the latter. The various
pekoes, souchongs and congous are black teas, while gunpowder tea and hyson
tea are the most important grades of green tea. Drying the leaves with fragrant flowers, such as
jasmine, and then sifting out the dried flowers prepare scented teas. Brick tea is made by steaming the coarser
leaves, twigs and even dust for a few minutes and then pressing them into
molds, sometimes with the addition of a small amount of rice paste. Brick tea is exported from China to Russia
and Tibet. Where tea is grown on
large plantations and prepared in factories it can be packed directly for
export. Tea is usually shipped in
light boxes lined with foil to protect the tea from air and moisture. The tea that finally reaches the market is
usually a blend of several different varieties. Blending is a delicate procedure and reserved for the experts. Tea contains 2-5 percent Theine,
an alkaloid identical with caffeine, and a volatile oil and considerable
tannin (13-18 percent). When an
infusion is made with hot water, the alkaloid and the oil dissolve out and
the resulting beverage has a stimulating effect and a characteristic taste
and aroma. If the leaves are steeped
for a longer period the tannin dissolves and the liquid becomes bitter and
loses its beneficial qualities. China was the original exporter of
tea, but Java began to export it in 1826, India in 1830, Taiwan in 1860 and
Sri Lanka in 1890. By the 21st
Century China and India together produced most of the world’s tea. A small amount is produced in East Africa,
Central and South America. Great
Britain imports the most tea, but the use is gradually spreading to other
countries as the beneficial qualities of tea are recognized. Both chocolate and cocoa are prepared from seeds of the
cacao or cocoa tree, Theobroma cacao that is native to the lowlands of
tropical America. Hill (1952) stated
that the cultivation and use of cocoa are so ancient that it is improbable
that there were any more wild trees.
Cocoa is grown throughout tropical South and Central America, in the
West Indies, West Africa and a few other areas. The beverage was first presented in 1526 in Europe after the
1519 voyage of Cortez. Chocolate was
widely used by Amerindians in the Mexico to South America region. It is the most nutritious of all
beverages. (Also please see Further
Details) Cocoa is a wholly tropical crop
that is grown primarily within 20 degrees of the equator. It requires special environmental
conditions. For example, it is
sensitive to drought and wind and requires shelter from direct rays of the
sun and the wind. Catch crops and
permanent shade trees are usually grown with cocoa. A deep rich alluvial soil with abundant moisture and suitable
drainage is necessary. The plant does
not grow well above 2,500 ft. and is injured by temperatures below 60 deg.
Fahrenheit. The crop is raised from
seed or transplanted seedlings with the individual plants in rows at 4-5 ft.
intervals. The tree is small, from 15-25 ft. tall, with numerous
branches. The shiny leaves are ovate
in outline and frequently one foot in length. The flowers and frutis are borne on short stalks directly on
the trunk and larger branches. The
trees begin to bear when 4-5 years of age, reaching full bearing during the
age of 12-50 years. The plants
produce flowers and fruit throughout the year so that several crops are
possible each year. The fruits are
pod like capsules 6-9 in. long and 3-4 in thick, with tapering ends. They contain a mucilaginous pulp and
usually from 40-60 seeds. The sweet
pulp is especially delicious with a coconut pineapple flavor. The fruits ripen in about four months and
their color changes from green to reddish purple or yellow. There are numerous varieties of
cocoa cultivated. The most important
of these are the Criollo and Forastero.
In the Criollo type the fruit is soft and thin skinned, with a rough
surface and pointed ends. The seeds
are plump, pale in color, and whitish within. They are the finest beans for flavoring. The Forastero varieties are hybrids that
are hardier and more resistant and have hard thick-shelled pods with seeds of
a pale to deep purple color. Most of
the commercial crop is from this type. To prepare the cocoa seeds for
market the mature pods are carefully cut off with special knives and are then
split open. The pulp and seeds are
scooped out, cured, and usually fermented.
Sometimes they are merely dried in the sun, but their flavor is
enhanced if fermentation is allowed to take place. This process may be done by piling the seeds in mounds for
several days and then spreading them out to dry. Specially constructed vats or houses are used that afford
protection from rain and allow the liquids from the disintegrating pulp to
run off. The seeds in these “sweating
boxes” are constantly stirred. During
fermentation, which takes about a week, the beans become brownish red in
color, lose their bitter taste and develop an aroma. They are then washed and dried and
polished by machines to remove any remaining dry pulp. Commercial cocoa and chocolate are prepared from the
processed seeds or “beans” in European and American factories. The beans are first cleaned to remove any
impurities and are then sorted. They
are next roasted at a temperature of 257-284 deg. Fahrenheit in iron drums. This develops the flavor, increases the
fat and protein content and decreases the amount of tannin. The shells become dry and brittle and the
seeds are now easy to grind. The
beans are now passed between corrugated rollers that break the shells into small
fragments. These are removed in a
winnowing machine. The seeds or
“nibs” are finally ground to an oily paste, constituting the “liquor” or
bitter chocolate, which is the beginning point for further processing. When cooled and hardened the “liquor” is the bitter
chocolate of commerce. Adding sugar
and various spices or other aromatic substances make sweet chocolate. Milk chocolate contains milk as well as
sugar and spices. Removing about
two-thirds of the fatty oil in hydraulic presses and powdering the residue
make Cocoa. Cocoa Butter is the
fatty oil present. The cocoa shells
are used for beverage purposes, for adulterating cocoa and chocolate, for
fertilizer and for livestock feed. Cocoa Production
& Consumption West Africa has led in the production of cocoa since the
middle of the 20th Century with over 64 percent of the total output. The Gold Coast, Nigeria and St. Thomas are
the leading countries. Less than 30
percent of the world crop is produced in the Western Hemisphere, principally
in Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela, Trinidad and the Dominican Republic. Asia and the Pacific Islands produce a
very small amount. Cocoa is not only a beverage but also a food. The seeds contain less than one percent of
an alkaloid, Theobromine, which with a few
traces of caffeine is responsible for the stimulating properties. They also contain 30-50 percent of a fatty
oil, 15 percent starch and 15 perecent protein. A volatile oil develops during the roasting process. Yerba Maté, or Paraguay Tea,
is next to coffee, tea and cocoa in importance. It is obtained from the leaves of various species of holly,
principally Ilex paraguariensis.
These plants grow wild in the mountains of southern brazil, Paraguay
and Argentina and they are also cultivated to some extent. The use of maté in South America dates to
antiquity. Originating with the
Amerindians it was adopted by the first European colonists and today is the
universal beverage. The plants are
evergreen shrubs or small trees. The
oval leaves are 4-5 in. long with serrated margins and resemble
tealeaves. Maté can readily be grown
from seed and the first crop is ready within a year, but the best yield is
obtained from older plants. To harvest the small leafy branches are carefully cut
and toasted over fires. They are then
beaten with sticks to break off the leaves, which are dried in ovens. They are finally threshed and sifted. The leaves like tea contain up to 0.5
percent theine, a volatile oil and some tannin. Maté is greenish in color, has an agreeable aroma and is
slightly bitter though it is much less astringent than tea. It has valuable restorative and
stimulating properties. The beverage
is usually prepared in a gourd or cup by pouring boiling water on the leaves,
often with sugar and lemon. It is
then sucked through a bombilla or hollow tube of silver, brass or
straw with a perforated bowl that serves as a strainer. Maté is the universal drink of millions in
South America but has not been popular in other parts of the world. A process of double toasting produces a
brownish beverage with a tangier flavor, especially for the North American
trade. Maté is also used to some
extent in the preparation of soft drinks. This is one of the more stimulating of all caffeine
beverages as it contains three times as much caffeine as coffee. It is prepared from the seeds of Paullinia
cupana, a large woody climber of the Amazon region. The seeds are round with water and cassava
flour and the resulting paste is molded into brown sausage-shaped cylinders
or other forms. These are dried in
smoke where they become very hard.
These can be kept for many years.
For use it is grated and added to either hot or cold water. One half teaspoon of the reddish brown
guarana in a cupful of water is equivalent to 2-3 cups of strong coffee. Guarana contains some tannin and a
volatile oil and is bitter and astringent with a bittersweet taste. The beverage is widely used in Brazil
especially in the Mato Grosso where the plant is cultivated to some extent. Catha edulis is a shrub that grows wild in
Abyssinia and is cultivated in other parts of Northeastern Africa. The dark-green leaves are used in Arabia
to yield khat, a principal beverage. The
leaves and buds contain an alkaloid similar to caffeine and are used dried or
are chewed fresh for their stimulating effect. The flavor is excellent and the product is worth introducing to
other areas. The seeds of Cola nitida are the Cola Nuts of
Africa. Inhabitants of Africa and
elsewhere use it for beverage purposes.
The drink is prepared by powdering the seeds when desired and boiling
some of the powder in water for several minutes. Cola contains 2 percent caffeine as well as other ingredients
and is thus invigorating. The seeds
are imported worldwide for use in various soft drinks. <bot751> Kola Nut (Cola nitida Schott &
Endlicher) (seeds a stimulant; relieve fatigue) [W. Africa] This is a tea like beverage obtained from a holly, Ilex
vomitoria. The plant is a tall
compact shrub or small tree with small oval, evergreen leaves and tough
branches. It grows in sandy soil of the
coastal plain from Virginia to Mexico where it is often found in dense
thickets. The Amerindian inhabitants
of this region were the first to use cassine as a beverage. They prepared an infusion of fresh or
dried leaves, which was known as yaupon or black drink. This was used medicinally as a spring
tonic and emetic, and also played a role in religious rites. It was sometimes fermented. Although the use of cassine was first
reported from Florida as early as 1562 and was used to some extent by the early
European settlers, it never became popular.
Some attention has been directed to the beverage as a basis for soft
drinks. The leaves and shoots are
picked and dried in the sun on trays or are roasted in ovens. Twigs and older leaves are sometimes steamed,
dried and ground. Casseine is
prepared by boiling or making an infusion.
The beverage is dark colored with a very sharp, bitter taste and tea
like odor. It contains tannin,
caffeine and essential oils. Yoco, Paullinia yoco, is an
important beverage plant among Amerindians in southern Colombia and adjacent
Peru and Ecuador. Unlike other
caffeine containing species it is the bark that is the source. The caffeine content is usually 3-4
percent but may reach 6 percent.
Extractions of the bark are made in cold water. The stimulating and hunger-allaying
properties of yoco are pronounced.
The Amerindians had become very dependent on this plant that gained an
important place in their economy. A
scarcity of wild plants often led to the desertion of otherwise excellent
village sites. There are a large number of soft
drink beverages in use worldwide that all have a high sugar content and are
good sources of energy. This is the simplest kind of soft
drinks that consists of the extracted juice alone or with sugar and water
added. Although fresh juice is
readily obtainable synthetic flavors have been very common commercial
products. The most common types of
fruit drinks are lemonade, orangeade, etc.
Orange juice, grapefruit juice, tomato juice and pineapple juice are
very popular. Sherbets made from
strawberries, raspberries, etc. were more common at earlier times. Grape juice is made by expressing the
fresh fruit and heating the liquid to extract the color and to pasteurize it
and thus prevent fermentation. Sweet
cider, the expressed juice of apples, and perry, obtained from pears, have
been widely used. These juices
contain wild yeasts and will ferment after 24 hours or so unless they are
pasteurized or otherwise treated so as to kill the yeast organisms. Many tropical fruits are used for beverage
purposes (Hill 1952). This drink consists of water
charged with carbon dioxide and mixed with syrup composed of sugar and
various natural or artificial flavorings.
Bottled soda, common known as pop, is widely used. A great quantity of bottled soft drinks are available
chief among which are malt beverages, ginger ale, sarsaparilla, root beer and
the cola beverages. The malt
beverages are made from malted barley, or other grains, before fermentation
has started or progressed very far.
They include the “near beers,” that have an alcoholic content of less
than 0.5 percent. Ginger ale consists
of acidulated sugar, water and carbon dioxide flavored with ginger and
capsicum. Sarsaparilla and root beer
are similar, but the flavor is due to sarsaparilla, wintergreen and other
aromatics. The cola beverages contain
cola obtained from cola nuts that has high caffeine content. Alcoholic beverages have been a
part of the human diet from the earliest history. Alcohol has often been used in connection with religious or
other ceremonies. The various
inebriating beverages cause cerebral excitation but may be followed by
depression if taken in excess. They
fall naturally into two classes: (1)
the fermented beverages where the alcohol is formed by the fermentation of
sugar present either naturally in the source or produced by the
transformation of starch and (2) the distilled beverages that are obtained by
distillation of some alcoholic liquor.
By the 21st Century the health benefits of using moderate amounts of
alcoholic beverages became apparent to the medical profession. Wine especially has been found to prolong
longevity and reduce risks of some diseases such as cancer and
arteriosclerosis. Wine is the most important and the
oldest of the fermented beverages. It
has been since at least 4,000 B.C. and its antiquity is evidenced by the fact
that that the word for wine is the same in many languages. It is produced by the conversion of sugar
that occurs in fruits or other parts of plants, into alcohol and carbon dioxide. This process of alcoholic fermentation
occurs through the agency of wild yeasts that are present on the skins of the
fruit. Wine is usually understood to
mean the fermented juice of the grape, but specific fruit, such as
blackberries, currants, etc. may be the source. Grapes have been cultivated for making wine for
centuries in many parts of the world.
By the 21st Century the industry was most prominent in Southern and
Central Europe, the United States, Australia and South America. The wine grape, Vitis vinifera, and
its varieties are the principal source.
Growing grapes requires knowledge of the best environmental conditions
and many other factors to be successful.
It is an art that requires skill and experience. Generally wines can be classified as
beverage wines or fine wines. The
former, frequently called vin ordinaire, comprise over 95 percent of
all wines and are used virtually as a food, predominantly in the regions
where they are produced. They are
inexpensive and constitute the backbone of the wine industry. Fine wines are the familiar commercial
types that enter world trade. They
are more carefully prepared and more expensive. The finest grades are produced in the older vine-growing
regions that have years of experience behind them. Wines vary in their characteristics. The alcoholic content varies from 7-16
percent. It is not possible to
produce a wine naturally with a higher content because the yeast is killed
under such conditions and further fermentation is precluded. The sugar content of the grapes varies
from 12-18 percent. Fermentation of
the fruits or the juice is carried on in vats, usually with the addition of
selected yeasts. The preferred
temperature is 68 deg. Fahrenheit.
The agreeable aroma and flavor are due to various aromatic principles
present in the fruit. The
characteristic bouquet develops only after the wine has been aged for period
that varies from 2-5 years to several decades. Clarification is at times required. Red wines are from grapes with colored skins and derive
their own color from the pigments and other substances present in the
skin. White wines are made from white
grapes, or expressed juice. In the
dry wines or sour wines, the sugar is almost entirely fermented. In sweet wines fermentation is stopped
before all the sugar is converted and at least one percent is still
present. In sparkling wines the wine
is bottled before fermentation is complete so that carbon dioxide is produced
within the bottle. About 90 percent
of the world’s wines are such natural or table wines. Fortified wines are wines that have a
higher alcoholic content due to the addition of brandy or alcohol. Principal Wine Varieties & Growing
Areas France This is the main wine-consuming
and wine-producing country of the world with millions of acres devoted to
vineyards. However, the industry is
mostly localized. The region around
Bordeaux in the valleys of the Garonne and Gironde produces most of the
wine. This district is the most outstanding
single wine-growing area in the world and is famous not only for the quantity
but for the quality of its wines.
Here are the most famous vineyards and some of the finest wines in
great variety are produced. Among
these are the Medocs, renowned red wines or clarets; Graves, dry wines with
both red and white varieties; and the white sauternes and Barsacs that are
sweeter and richer. The Bordeaux
wines include regional wines consisting of blends from several vineyards as
well as the finest grades that are bottled by individual châteaux and bear
their names. Burgundy wines are produced in the
hilly country of the Côte d’Or in east central France. These red and whtie wines are drier and
have more body and flavor than the Bordeaux wines. Both still and sparkling wines are made. Champagnes are grown in the
vicinity of Reims and Epernay. Black
and red grapes are used and the manufacture involves a series of elaborate
processes that extend over a period of 6-7 years. Because of the popularity of champagnes there are many
imitations , which are made by charging light wines with carbon dioxide. Other types of wines are produced
in the valleys of the Loire and Rhone and in Alsace and Touraine. The Rhine valley is famous for its
vineyards where all available space on the hillsides is devoted to
grapes. The dry Rhine wintes, often
called hock, are light colored with a rich flavor and fine bouquet. Other similar wines are produced in the
valleys of the Moselle, Nekar and Main.
There are some sweet Rhine wines. Chianti, Asti and other Italian
wines have long been known, even prior to the days of Horace who sang the
praises of Falernian wine. Although today
Italy ranks second to France in wine production, only a few of its products
have gained world fame. The principal
wine producing regions are Piedmont, Tuscany and the country from Naples
southward. Sicily is noted for its
Marsala, a sherry-like fortified wine. Tokay is the wine of Hungary, a
golden yellow wine with a sweet rich flavor and rare bouquet. It is more of a liqueur than a wine as it
has a soft oily taste. True Tokay is
expensive and there is a limited supply.
There are, of course, many imitations and adulterations. Spain is noted for its sherry, a
dry wine, usually fortified with brandy and having an alcoholic content of
15-24 percent. Commercial sherries
are blended and several different grades are on the market. Malaga, another Spanish wine, is rich and
sweet. Port is the main wine of Portugal. it is heavy and sweet due to the presence
of considerable unfermented sugar.
new port is deep purplish red.
After aging in casks this wine loses some of its color and takes on a
tawny color. This is a fortified white wine
made from grapes that are grown on the island of Madeira. It is stirred in glass-lined tanks and
then heated which improves its quality.
In earlier times this wine was shipped on long sea voyages that
produced the desired result. European type grapes are grown in
the Murray Valley of South east of Australia near Adelaide. The wines made from these grapes are of
excellent and rival California in their quality. The Chilean wine district is
located west of Santiago in a coastal area that resembles the Napa and Sonoma
Valleys of California. The European type
grapes that are grown are the same as those in California and the wine that
is produced is of excellent quality.
It is distinctive but competitive with the finest California wines
produced. Grapes that are grown in the United
States, especially in California, yield wines of a distinctive nature and
excellence. These domestic wines are
competitive with the best European types.
The main wine growing states are California that produces about 90
percent of the commercial output, New York, Ohio and Virginia. Other states such as Florida, Texas and
Rhode Island produce small quantities of rather unimpressive wines. Wines that are made from grapes grown in
the Eastern and Middle Western states are known primarily as native or “American:”
wines, although some European varieties are also grown. California wines are made from European
grapes grown on the West Coast and resemble European wines more closely. To make beers it is first necessary to change the
source starch into sugar by adding malt or yeast. The art of brewing alcoholic beverages from cereals is
ancient. Millet was probably the
first to be used and it is still fermented in India and parts of Africa. Rye, rice and maize have been used to some
extent, but barley has always been the main source. Barley “wine” was made in ancient Egypt and Rome. Beer was popular during the Middle
Ages. For centuries the monasteries
were the principal source of supply.
Beer was a popular beverage in England as early as the 13th
Century. It was often home brewed and
was a dark muddy liquid with a high alcohol content. The lighter German beers began to replace
it in the early 19th Century. The
commercial manufacture of beer involves the two distinct processes of molting
and brewing. In malting the starch present in the grains are
converted into sugar. An enzyme,
diastase, which is produced during the process of germination, accomplishes
this. Barley is used almost
universally for malting. Sometimes
maize is also added. Only large,
fresh, perfect and light colored grains are used that are free from chaff and
other impurities. The barley is first
steeped in water for 1-4 days. During
this time the grains absorb their own weight of the water. The grains are then placed in piles or
layers 6 in. deep until germination is started. Next they are spread out on the malting floor at a temperature
of 50-60 deg. Fahrenheit, and are constantly turned or stirred. When the required amount of germination has
occurred, the shoots are about one-third the length of the grain. The germinated barley is then kiln dried
for 12 hours, which prevents any further germination and resultant loss of
sugar. The color of the dried
produce, known as malt, is dependent on the amount of heat. The malt is crushed or coarsely
ground in a roller mill and mixed with water that is heated to 170 deg.
Fahrenheit. Sometimes unmalted
cereals are added. The sugar
dissolves out and the infusion or wort is drawn off. This process of mashing is repeated
several times. The residue is fed to
livestock. The word is then boiled
with hops for two hours. The hops
impart the bitter flavor and tonic properties and improve storage by
preventing bacterial action. The
liquid is then cooled rapidly and yeast is added to bring about the
fermentation of the sugar. An optimum
temperature is required for enzyme action to occur and care must be taken to
prevent the process from continuing too long as acetic acid might form. It is usually stopped before fermentation
is complete and the yeast is removed.
The beer is then drained off and strained and allowed to cool in
casks. A slow fermentation continues,
increasing the alcohol content and forming the carbon dioxide that is
responsible for the foaming of beer.
Beer contains 3-8 percent alcohol.
Its nutritive properties are due to the presence of sugar, dextrin and
various proteins and phosphates. Heavy and light beers result from differences in
temperature during the brewing process.
Lager beer is a term that should be restricted to beer that has
been aged for some time. Bock beer
is a very strong dark beer, usually made in the springtime from the first of
the new malt and hops. The German weiz
bier does not contain hops. Ale used to mean any kind of
malt beverage, and this usage continued until hops began to be used. Now the difference between beer and ale is
due to differences in the temperature during fermentation. Ale is brewed by “top fermentation” at
higher temperatures, around 58 deg. Fahrenheit, while beer is brewed by
“bottom fermentation” with temperatures averaging 40 deg. Fahrenheit. The alcohol content of ale is 4-7 percent
while that of beer is 3-5 percent.
Porter
was first brewed in 1722. It is a dark-brown beer with a slightly burned
taste and is made from inferior grades of malt. The color is frequently heightened by the addition of caramel
or licorice. Porter is stored for 6-8
weeks before it is used. Stout is similar, but much heavier. It is stored for at least a year before it
is used. Beer is usually made from pale or amber colored malt,
ale from brown, and porter and stout from black malt. Fresh apple juice begins to ferment within 24 hours and
gradually increases in alcohol content until it becomes hard cider. While some production of hard cider may be
used for beverage purposes, a greater proportion is allowed to undergo acetic
acid fermentation and become vinegar.
Cider and other fruit vinegars are made on a commercial scale. Pare juice, or perry, is similarly often
fermented. This consists of an infusion of
different kinds of roots, barks and herbs among them sarsaparilla,
wintergreen and ginger, with the addition of sugar and yeast. Fermentation begins and the beverage
becomes charged with carbon dioxide.
Root beer may also consist of an alcoholic extract of various
aromatics and bitters. Nonalcoholic
root beer is commonly made. Spruce
beer is an infusion of the leaves and twigs of the spruce, and birch beer is
obtained from the bark of the black birch. This is a fermented beverage of
antiquity and it is still used in Africa and to a lesser extent
elsewhere. It is fermented from honey
and water and has a wine like flavor.
The Scandinavians introduced Mead into England and the beverage played
an important part in the 30-day nuptial ceremonies of Scandinavia. Because of this the duration of these
ceremonies was referred to as the “honeymoon.” This beverage of Japan and China
that dates back to before 600 B.C. is prepared by fermenting rice. There are no hops used. Sake contains more alcohol than beer or
wine. Sake may be used either heated
or cold, the former being preferable. The inflorescences of many species of palms provide a
juice that is often fermented. The
sugary exudation is also a local source of sugar. Herodotus in 420 B.C. referred to Palm wine or toddy. The natives of tropical regions of both
hemispheres have prepared it. The
most important palm species utilized for this purpose are Raphia vinifera,
Elaeis guineensis, Borassus flabellifer, Arenga pinnata, Phoenix dactylifera
and Cocos nucifera. Distilled
date palm wine is Arrack. <bot319>
Wine Palm (Jubaea chilensis ), Central Chile <bot321> Wine Palm (Jubaea chilensis ),
Central Chile Fermented juice of maguey, Agave alrovirens, and
other agaves was used in Pre-Columbian Mexico as a beverage. The juice is obtained by making incisions
in the flower stalk or by removing the central cone of leaves and allowing
the sap to collect in the cavity.
When distilled this produces Mescal. <bot221>
Mescal (Agave sp.), Kofa Mts., southwestern Arizona <bot222>
Mescal (Agave sp.), Kofa Mts., southwestern Arizona <bot288> Local Mescal (Agave sp.), San
Gabriel Mts., foothills, California This is the fermented and distilled juice of Agave
tequilana of Mexico. The
procedure is similar to that for mescal but the quality is much higher. The finest grades of tequila are expensive
because the old processes are utilized in its manufacture. Many inferior substitutes are on the
market that is derived primarily from sugarcane. <bot889>
Tequila Plants in West-central Mexico <bot794> Agave tequilana (Tequila var.) (beverage;
fiber) [Cent. Mexico] (ex. Riverside, CA) A common and ancient beverage
among the natives of Bolivia, Peru and other Andean areas. Chicha is prepared from maize by a process
of salivation that converts the starch into sugar followed by a period of
fermentation. Similar maize beverages
have been made in Mexico and Central America. Misc. Other plants whose juices are
fermented for use as beverages include bananas, sugar cane, yucca, cassava,
sorghum, sweet potato, algaroba, pineapple and cactus. This is distilled from a fermented
mash of malted or unmalted cereals or potatoes. After several distillations of the mash a product known as “low
wines” is produced. Further
distillations yield the “high wines.”
A mixture of high wines and water is straight whiskey. At first this is harsh and not very
palatable due to the presence of from 20-40 volatile ingredients, such as
fusel oil and various esters and aldehydes.
it must be aged to allow mellowing to occur and the volatiles to
disappear. The highest-grade bonded
whiskies are aged in charred oak barrels for at least four years and
frequently longer. Whiskey is
colorless at first, the color developing during the aging process. Whiskey
that contains 50 percent alcohol by volume is referred to as 100 proof. That which contains only 45 percent
alcohol is 90 proof. A continued
distillation of the high wines finally results in the neutralization or
elimination of all the volatile substances and yields the so-called neutral
spirits. These are used in blended
whiskies, in making cordials and for other purposes. They are made mainly from maize in the
United States and from potatoes in Germany. American straight whiskies are
made from maize or rye. the former constituting the famous “corn” or
moonshine of the South. About
two-thirds of the commercial whisky is Bourbon, made principally from
maize. Most of the remainder is made
from rye. Bourbon was originally made
only in Bourbon County, Kentucky.
Canadian whiskey is a blend of various straight whiskies with neutral
spirits. Scotch whiskey deploys only barley
malt. The typical flavor is due to
the smoke of the peat fires that re used in drying the malt. Irish whiskey is made from malt, or a
mixture of malt and unmalted grains of barley, oats and maize. Vodka is made from fermented wheat
mash. it is not aged but is bottled
immediately after distillation. Originally true brandy was distilled only from wine,
but the term has come to include distillations of the fermented juice of
different kinds of fruits. The
highest quality brandy is from the Charente district of France. Brandy from this region is called Cognac. Other
French brandies are called Armagnac or eau de
vie. The best grades are made
from white wines. Brandy is a clear
colorless liquid and remains that way when kept in glass. The brown color develops after storage in
oak casks. Brandy is sometimes
artificially colored with caramel.
The alcohol content is 65-70 percent. Fruit brandies are usually made from apricots, peaches,
cherries, plums and blackberries, and they are often used as cordials. Apple brandy is known as Applejack. Rum is distilled from the
unrefined products of sugar cane, mainly the juice and molasses. It is of American origin and is one of the
oldest and most widely known of distilled beverages. The flavor and aroma are due to various
aromatic substances that improve on aging.
The color is most often due to caramel. Rum was important to the economic and social life of the
American colonies from 1687, especially in New England. Today a great quantity of rum is distilled
in the West Indies. Rum is usually
about 40 percent alcohol. Gin is distilled from fermented
malt or raw grain mash. The best
grades are from barley malt and rye.
Several distillations are required.
Gin was discovered in Holland and both Holland and England produce the
best grades. However, the methods of
distillation differ somewhat. The
flavor of gin is due to oil of juniper.
Other aromatic essential oils are sometimes used for flavoring, such
as in orange gin and sloe gin. There
are many imitations that are made by adding essential oils to grain alcohol. Alcohol that is flavored with
various essential oils and to which sugar is added constitute the liqueurs
and cordials. They are prepared by
the addition of the flavoring material to neutral spirits or brandy or by the
distillation of fermented fruits.
Most of these contain no harmful ingredients other than alcohol, but
some, as in the case of absinthe, do have deleterious effects and their use
is prohibited in many countries. Liqueurs often contain various oils and cordials are
carefully blended using secret formulas.
The monasteries of France have been famous for manufacturing liqueurs. Benedictine has
been made since 665 A.D. Chartreuse is also
made in the monasteries. Maraschino is distilled from bruised marasca
cherries grown in Dalmatia and sweetened and flavored with cordials. Curaçao is
distilled from the dried rind of bitter oranges steeped in alcohol and water,
with a later addition of sugar and rum.
Kirshwasser, or black cherry brandy, is
distilled from fruits after which sugar and alcohol are added. The essential oils that are often used in the
preparation of liqueurs include anise and coriander (anisette), caraway
(kümmel), peppermint (créme de menthe), bitter almonds (créme de noyau), and
clove. Some alcohol preparations are used
for appetizing and tonic properties. Vermouth is a light bitter wine that is slightly
fortified and sweetened and flavored with an infusion of several bitter and
aromatic herbs. It is made primarily
in Italy and France. French Vermouth
is dry while Italian Vermouth is either dry or sweet. Steeping certain herbs with bitter principles in water
or alcohol makes Bitters. The infusion is strained and alcohol is
added. Angostura Bitters contain
quinine and some aromatics, and Orange Bitters are some examples. |
