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BLACK SCALE, Saissetia oleae (Olivier) -- Coccidae (Contacts) This polyphagous, almost cosmopolitan species,
is as pest primarily on olive and citrus.
Its origin remains in doubt, as previously discussed. Some consider South Africa as the native home
(DeLotto 1976), while D. P. Annecke (pers. commun.) considered North Africa
as the place of origin. Black scale
is rarely a pest of citrus in East Africa, Mexico and central California, but
has been very serious in southern California, Chile, Australia and in the
Mediterranean region. Black scale became a pest in southern
California as early as 1880, and biological control was begun in 1981-92 with
the introduction of some coccinellid beetles from Australia. Two species, Orcus chalybeus and Rhizobius ventralis
Erichson were established (Essig 1931).
Several other species of Orcus,
Rhizobius and Leis were obtained in Australia
during 1892-1902, without becoming established (Bartlett 1978). The parasitoid Scutellista cyanea Motschulsky was imported
from South Africa in 1901, followed by about 30 other species of parasitoids
and 10 coccinellids over six decades (Bartlett 1978, Luck 1981). Of nine established parasitoids, Metaphycus
helvolus (Compere), M. lounsbury (Howard), M. bartletti
Annecke & Mynhardt, S. cyanea, and Diversinervus elegans Silvestri were
established. Although some control
was obtained with the introduction of Metaphycus lounsburyi
in 1918 (Smith 1921), substantial control was only obtained after the
establishment of M. helvolus (Bartlett 1978). Kennett et al. (1999) point out that various
aspects of the long campaign against S.
oleae which are of especial
interest include (1) the emphasis placed on introduction of coccinellid
predators following the earlier success with Rodolia cardinalis
for biological control of the cottony-cushy scale; none established. (2) the
apparent displacement of Moranila
californica (Howard),
another chalcidoid egg predator, by S.
cyanea (Flanders 1958), (3)
failure of the introduced Coccophagus
species to attack S. oleae on citrus (Clausen 1956),
(4) the erroneous introduction of the hyperparasitoid Quaylea whittieri Girault, which
adversely affected M. lounsbury, but which
disappeared in later years (Flanders 1943); (5) the different degrees of control
achieved on univoltine (inland) and bivoltine (coastal) scale populations;
(6) the role of host feeding by M.
helvolus in reducing S. oleae populations (DeBach 1943); (7) the near eradication
of the nigra scale, Saissetia
nigra Nietner, by M. helvolus (Smith 1944), and (8) the elimination of Eucalymnatus tesselatus (Signoret) by M. helvolus prior to its becoming a major pest (Bartlett
1969). Lampson & Morse (1992) appraised the status
of biological control in California.
Black scale surveys were made between Sept 1987-1989. From 308 collections of black
scale-infested citrus, olive, and oleander twigs from 19 sites in southern
California, 1,610 specimens were collected.
Nine primary and six secondary parasitoids were identified. Four primaries wer abundant in southern
California: Metaphycus bartletti
Anneck & Mynhardt, M. helvolus (Compere), Scutellista caerulea (Fonscolombe) (= S. cyanea Motschulsky), and Diversinervus elegans
Silvestri. Common secondaries were Marietta mexicana (Howard), Cheiloneurus
noxius Compere and Tetrastichus
minutus (Howard). In coastal southern California, M. bartletti was the most abundant, followed in order by D. elegans, S. caerulea
and M. helvolus. In the
intermediate and interior regions, M.
helvolus was most abundant. D.
elegans was second most
abundant in the intermediate region, but rare in the interior. M.
bartletti was second in
abundance in the interior and third in the intermediate (Lampson & Morse
1992). In Australia most of the early efforts to control
S. oleae involved movement of native natural enemies,
especially coccinellids, to different states (Wilson 1960). Exotic parasitoids were also introduced,
including Moranila californica and Scutellista cyanea from California,
and Metaphycus lounsbury from South Africa. Excellent control was achieved in Western
Australia through the action of all of these parasitoids (Wilson 1960). Metaphycus
helvolus was introduced from
California in 1942 and became established in South Australia. Wilson (1960) reported that S. oleae assumed only minor importance presently due to the
action of native and exotic natural enemies, which was not the case in
California. Biological control was begun in Chile in 1903
with the introduction of Rhizobius
ventralis, but concentrated
efforts were not made until the 1930's when eight species of parasitoids,
including Metaphycus lounsburyi, were introduced
from California and Peru (Graf Marin & Cortes 1939, Bartlett 1978). Only S.
cyanea became established,
however. Metaphycus helvolus
was released in 1943, but establishment failed. A later attempt in 1951 resulted in this parasitoid's
establishment (Kennett et al. 1999). Metaphycus lounsburyi appeared in Chile around 1944, presumably by
dispersing from Peru where it had been introduced to control S. oleae on olives (Duran 1944). Metaphycus lounsburyi and M. helvolus were both thought to be highly effective in areas
where the scale was bivoltine, but not so effective in univoltine populations
(Gonzalez 1969). Other parasitoids
noted as contributing to overall biological control were Coccophagus caridei (Brethes), Scutellista cyanea and Metaphycus flavus (Howard) (also see
Wille, 1941, 1952, 1958; Caballero 1951, Beingolea 1956, Gonzalez & Rojas
1966). Only recently were attempts made to control S. oleae in the Mediterranean region, following an increase
in severity of infestations with the advent of synthetic insecticides
(Argyriou & DeBach 1968, Rivnay 1968, Greathead 1976). Several parasitoids were introduced into
France around 1953, followed by efforts in Italy in 1960-71, Corsica in 1971,
Iran in 1960, Greece in 1962-68 and Israel in 1963-78. Original introductions in France were
unsuccessful (Kennett et al. 1999) but later M. helvolus
was finally established in 1969 and M.
lounsburyi in 1976 (Kennett
et al. 1999). Early efforts in Israel
also were unsuccessful, but later introductions made primarily from South
Africa during 1972-77 produced established populations of M. lounsburyi, M.
bartletti, M. helvolus, and S.
cyanea (Wysoki 1979). REFERENCES: [ Additional references may be found at: MELVYL
Library ] Annecke, D. P. & M. J. Mynhardt. 1972. The species of
the insidiosus group of Metaphycus Mercet in South
Africa with notes on some extralimital species (Hymenoptera:
Encyrtidae). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr.
85: 227-74. Argov, Y. & Y. Rössler.
1988. Introduction of
berneficial insects into Israel for the control of insect pests. Phytoparasitica 16: 303-15. Argyriou, L. C.
1963. Studies on the
morphology and biology of the black scale [Saissetia oleae
(Bernard)] in Greece. Ann. Inst.
Phytopath. Benaki, N.S. 5: 353-77. Argyriou, L. C.
1984. Present status of parasite
complex in olive groves in Greece, p. 177-78. In: R. Vavalloro & A. Piavaux (eds.), C.E
C. Programme on Integrated and Biological Control. Final Report 1979/83. Comm. European Comm., Directorat,
Luxembourg. Argyriou, L. C. & P. DeBach.
1968. The establishment of Metaphycus helvolus (Compere) (Hym. Encyrtidae) on Saissetia oleae (Bern) (Hom. Coccidae) in olive groves in
Greece. Entomophaga 13: 223-28. Bartlett, B. R.
1963. The contact toxicity of
some pesticide residues to hymenopterous parasites and coccinellid
predators. J. Econ. Ent. 56: 694-98. Bartlett, B. R.
1969. The biological control
campaigns against soft scales and mealybugs on citrus in California. Proc. 1st Intern. Citrus Symp., Riverside,
Calif. 2: 875-78. Bartlett, B. R.
1978. Coccidae. In: C. P. Clausen (ed.), Introduced Parasites
and Predators of Arthropod Pests and Weeds.
U. S. Dept. Agric. Agric. Handbk. No. 480, Washington, D.C. 545 p. Bartlett, B. R. & R. A. Medved. 1966. The biology and
effectiveness of Diversinervus
elegans (Encyrtidae:
Hymenoptera), an imported parasites of lecaniine scale insects in
California. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer.
59: 974-76. Beingolea, G. O.
1956. Estatus actual de la
plaga de la quereza negra del olivo (Saissetia
oleae Bern.) en los valles
de Yauca e Ilo. Bol. Trimest. Extp.
Agropecuarias (1955) 4: 18-22. Bellows, T. S., Jr. & J. G. Morse. 1988. Residual toxicity
following dilute or low-volume applications of insecticides used for control
of California red scale (Homoptera: Diaspididae) to four beneficial
species in a citrus agroecosystem. J.
Econ. Ent. 81: 892-98. Blumberg, D. & E. Swirski.
1982. Comparative studies of
the development of two species of Metaphycus
(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), introduced into Israel for the control of the
Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia
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Coccidae). Acta Oecol. Oecol. Appl.
3: 281-86. Blumberg, D. & E. Swirski.
1988. Colonization of Metaphycus spp. (Hymenoptera:
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1209-13. In: R. Gore &
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Continental United States. U. S.
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151 p. Compere, H. 1939. The insect enemies of the black scale, Saissetia oleae (Bern.) in South America. Calif. Univ. Publ. Ent. 7:
75-90. Compere, H. 1940. Parasites of the black scale, Saissetia oleae (Bernard), in Africa. Hilgardia 13: 387-425. Coulsen, J. R., A. Carrell & D. L. Vincent. 1988.
Releases of beneficial organisms in the United States and territories,
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parasites in the reduction of host populations. J. Econ. Ent. 36:
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1943a. Indirect
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1943b. The Argentine ant
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Calif. Citrogr. 28: 117, 128,
137. Flanders, S. E.
1953. Variations in
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1958. Moranila californica
as a usurped parasite of Saissetia
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and northern California (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea; Homoptera:
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1971-78. Phytoparasitica 7: 101-06 |