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Plants
Consumed as Vegetables
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In actuality all plants are
vegetables, however, the term is usually reserved for edible plants that
store up reserve food in roots, stems, leaves and fruits and that are eaten
cooked or raw as salad plants. Vegetables
make up a large and varied group of great importance in world commerce. Most vegetables have been in use since
antiquity so that their origin is often in doubt. The food value of vegetables is rather low due to the large
amount of water present, varying from 70-95 percent. Nevertheless, they rank next to cereals as
sources of carbohydrates. This is
most often present in the form of starch, but sometimes sugar, pectin and
other substances may be present.
Except for legumes, proteins are rarely available and fats are stored
only in very low amounts. The
nutritive value of vegetables increases greatly by the presence of the
indispensable mineral salts and vitamins, while the roughage value of the
plant tissues aids digestion. It is
convenient to classify vegetables as earth vegetables, herbage vegetables and
fruit vegetables. Earth vegetables, or root crops,
include all those where the food is stored in underground plant
structures. The storage organs may
differ morphologically. Some are true
roots while others represent modified stems, such as tubers, bulbs, corms and
rootstalks. All of these structures
are particularly well adapted to storage because of their protected position
in the soil. Many wild and cultivated
species have fleshy underground parts.
These have played an important role in the development of civilization
and agriculture second only to cereals and legumes. Since ancient times roots and tubers have provided food for man
and livestock. Even though the amount
of stored material is less than that in dry fruits and seeds, these are
extremely valuable because they are readily digested and have a high-energy
content. They do have a high water
content that not only reduces the amount of available food but also impairs
one’s ability to maintain them in storage.
The high bulk also makes it impossible to transport and store them as
efficiently as cereals, nuts and legumes.
Root crops are an important phase of agriculture worldwide. They are mostly grown both for livestock
feed and human consumption. The
various earth vegetables may be grouped according to their morphological
origin. Only some of the most
important species are considered. Several kinds
of beets under cultivation are common beets, sugar beets, chard and
mangels. These are all in the same
species, Beta vulgaris. They all have been
derived from the wild beet, Beta maritima of the seacoasts of the Mediterranean region and southwestern
Europe. Beets are biennials that
produce the first year a large cluster of leaves from a crown at the tip of a
fleshy taproot. Beta vulgaris var. cicla is a type of beet that
was known as early as 300 B.C. At
first the roots were used both as a vegetable and in medicine. Finally the tender leaves were favored and
under cultivation they have developed and the roots became smaller. Today the chard has large leaves with
thick stalks and only slightly enlarged roots.
Mangel Wurzels have developed from chard. They have the roots and lower part of the stem thickened with a
crimson, golden or white sap. They
were an important livestock feed since the 16th Century, and are now grown
extensively in Europe and Canada.
Mangels contain 3-8 percent sugar and are fed to livestock either dry
or as a silage.
These were developed from mangels, but they are smaller and have
higher sugar content. They are used
extensively as a source of sugar and their tender leaves are consumed like
spinach.
Many varieties of the common beet that differ in size, color, shape,
sugar content and time of maturing are grown. Early red beets are most favored. The beets are boiled, pickled or canned and are often used for
salads. The leaves of young plants
are consumed as beet greens. Daucus carota has been cultivated
since before 100 B.C. It was known to
the Romans and Greeks and gradually moved into northern Europe. It was a favorite vegetable in England in
the time of Queen Elizabeth and was brought to eastern North America in
1609. From there Amerindians spread
it to the rest of America. Carrots
are usually biennials but may mature in one year. They pinnately compound leaves. The many varieties differ in shape, color, size and quality
and are affected by soil type. A deep
sandy loam is best. The roots are
harvested in autumn and stored in cellars.
Most of the food is stored in the outer cortical portions of the
taproot. The central portion of
earlier varieties remained woody and unpalatable. Carrots are consumed raw or cooked and may be used to flavor
soups and stews. They are also a
valuable livestock feed, and are especially favored by horses. The yellow color is carotin, which is
sometimes extracted and used to color other food. Oyster Plant or Salsify,
Tragopogon
porrifolius,
is a hardy biennial with a large fleshy taproot that at times may reach up to
one foot in length. It is a composite
that when mature has large purple heads with fruits that resemble those of a
dandelion. It is native to Southern
Europe but is cultivated worldwide and may establish as a weed. The roots are cooked or used as a
relish. They have a flavor that
resembles oysters. Pastinaca sativa was used by the early
Romans and Greeks and has since spread worldwide. It was represented in nearly all the early herbals. It is native to Europe and reached the
West Indies in 1564, Virginia in 1609 and by the 18th Century was being grown
widely by Amerindians in North America.
The plant has a tendency to escape from cultivation and revert to a
primitive growth habit with tough dry roots.
Seedlings from the wild forms when moved to favorable environmental
conditions gradually resume the cultivated form. Parsnips have a high sugar content and some fat. They are used cooked and for livestock and
even for making wine. Raphanus sativus is an annual or
biennial with a fleshy taproot and rosette of small leaves that later are
replaced by the erect flowering and fruiting part of the plant. They have been grown since before 100
B.C., but remain close to the ancestral type and often revert to a form with
a dry woody root. Radishes are grown
worldwide and are esteemed for their pungent flavor. There are many varieties, all differing in
size, color and shape of the roots.
There are early, summer and winter types and they are frequently
forced in hotbeds. Although mostly
eaten raw, they may be also cooked. These are very closely related
plants that are sometimes considered as varieties of a single species, Brassica campestris. However, in the Turnip, Brassica rapa, both the root and the
lower parts of the stem are fleshy and rough. The texture varies, with the finer ones being used as human
food while the coarser types are fed to livestock. Turnips were being grown since 2,000 B.C. and spread from the
ancestral home in Europe to other parts of the world. They arrived in Mexico in 1586, Virginia
in 1610 and New England in 1628 (Hill 1952).
The many varieties differ mainly in the color and shape of the
root. Turnips thrive in cool climates
and are grown as winter vegetables in the subtropics. The leaves are used for greens and for
livestock forage and manuring. The Rutabaga, or Swedes,
Brassica
napobrassica,
has a larger smooth root with a short neck composed of stem tissue. The flesh is more solid and they are
easily stored for long periods. They
grow well in northern regions where the cool climate favors the development
of the typical sweet flavor.
Rutabagas are also used as a livestock feed. Ipomoea batatas is
definitely a native to tropical America where the Amerindians for millennia
before the European colonization most likely grew it. There is some mystery about how it became
widespread in the tropics of both hemispheres perhaps well before the
Christian Era. Thus it serves as an
example of probable Pre-Columbian contacts between the hemispheres. The plant is now especially abundant in
the South Seas, Japan, China and Indonesia.
The sweet potato along with the yam, cassava and taro are
indispensable mainstays of the diet in tropical countries. The crop is available throughout the year
and grows in every kind of soil. The plant is a twining, trailing
perennial vine with adventitious roots that terminate in swollen tubers. They contain both sugar and starch and
some fat. Sandy soil and a warm moist
climate are preferred. In North
America the Atlantic coastal plain from the Gulf States to New Jersey is the
main producing area, with North Carolina, Georgia and Louisiana leading
production. The plants are grown as
annuals and propagated vegetatively from the roots or vine cuttings. There are two major types grown. One type has a dry, mealy yellow flesh and
is preferred in northern areas. A
second type, often-misnamed yams, has a more watery, soft, gelatinous flesh
that is richer in sugar. This is
favored in the South where sweet potatoes are a staple crop and rank next to
potatoes in importance. They are used
not only as a table vegetable but also for canning, dehydrating, flour
manufacture and as a source of starch, glucose syrup and alcohol. They are also used as a livestock
feed. The green tops are used for
fodder. Their high water content
makes them spoil easily. The genus Dioscorea includes the true
yams. Many species exist in the
tropics and subtropics worldwide, and they are difficult to distinguish. Dioscorea alata is one of the more
common cultivated species. Yams are
all climbing vines with large storage roots that often weigh as much as 30-40
pounds and occasionally have aerial tubers.
They require a deep soil but are drought resistant. Yams constitute a main food for
inhabitants of the tropical regions.
They are broiled, baked or ground into flour. Yams are also a valuable livestock feed. Manihot esculenta is a very important
root crop of the tropics. Native to
South America it is widely grown in all tropical and subtropical areas. There are over 155 varieties most of which
are used locally for food. Two main
groups are the bitter cassavas and the sweet cassavas. They are shrubby perennials with stems
reaching a height of 9 feet. They
have 3-7 deeply parted leaves and roots that terminate in large tubers. All varieties contain a glucoside similar
to prussic acid that is poisonous.
However, only a slight amount of heat is required to drive off the
volatile acid and to render the flesh harmless. Other names for Cassava are Manioc, Mandioc and Yuca. The crop is grown easily with a
minimum of labor. Stem cuttings of
6-10 in long pieces propagate it. The
plant matures in 6-12 months and the yield is great. One acre can produce more than 7 tons of
cassava tubers. The roots of a single
plant can weight 25-50 pounds. The tubers are consumed cooked or
raw. Sweet cassavas are usually
boiled. A flour known as Farinha is prepared by peeling, washing and scraping or
grating the tubers and then placing the material in a bag or press where the
liquids are removed. After drying and
sifting the meal is baked into thin cakes known as Cassava
Bread. This has a high food value
and replaces wheat bread in the diet.
The poisonous milky juice is concentrated to a thick consistency by
boiling and constitutes Cassareep or West Indian Pepper Pot that is used for making
sauces. Raw cassava starch has
healing qualities and is fermented to make an alcoholic beverage. It is also a livestock feed and may be
used for sizing and laundry work. Raw cassava is used to make Tapioca. The roots
are peeled and grated and the milky fluids expressed. The starchy material is then soaked in
water for several days, is kneaded and finally strained to remove any fibers
and impurities. After sifting and
drying it is gently heated on hot iron plates. This partially cooks the starch and causes it to ball up into
little round lumps, which are the tapioca of commerce. Jerusalem Artichoke (Sunchokes) Helianthus tuberosus is native to North America
where Amerindians have cultivated it for centuries. It is a hardy perennial sunflower 6-12 ft tall. The name “sunflower” comes from the
Italian word for sunflower, girasole. The plant was
introduced into Europe in 1616 and has been cultivated more extensively there
than in the West. The plant is
adapted to a wide variety of climates but grows best in more temperate
areas. The tubers somewhat resemble
potatoes but with larger eyes. They
are cooked, pickled, or consumed raw.
The carbohydrate is in the form of inulin that is suited for diabetics
and is also used as a source of levulose and industrial alcohol. Sunchokes are also grown as forage crop
and weed eradicator. Solanum tuberosum is the white or Irish Potato
that is now a mainstay worldwide. It
is a native American species that was being cultivated from Chile to New
Granada at the time that the Spanish explorers reached America. The first published mention of the potato
was in 1553 in Pedro de Leon’s “Chronica del Peru,” while the first
illustration appeared in Gerard’s Herbal in 1633 (Hill 1952). The potato reached Europe via Spain soon
after 1580 and by the end of the 17th Century was being grown all over Europe
and the British Isles. Irish immigrants
brought the potato to New England in 1719 although it had been brought to
Virginia and the Carolinas earlier. Potatoes are erect, branching and
somewhat spreading annuals from 2-3 ft. tall. They have pinnately compound leaves, fine fibrous roots and
abundant rhizomes that are swollen at the tip to form the familiar
tubers. The flowers are yellow, white
or purple with a tubular corolla. The
fruit is a small brownish-green or purple inedible berry. Potatoes are adapted to many soils
and climates. They are grown
worldwide except in the lower tropical regions. They are hardy and mature rapidly and can be grown as far north
as 60 deg. N. Latitude and at altitudes up to 8,000 ft. The best environment is a cool moist
climate with a mean annual temperature of 40-50 deg. Fahrenheit and a rich
light soil. Propagation is usually
vegetatively by means of tubers or parts of tubers the so-called “seed
potatoes.” However, they may be grown
from seed. The more than 520
varieties in cultivation have been obtained by selection and hybridization
and by the utilization of mutations that are frequent. The essential parts of the seed potatoes
used for propagation are the eyes.
These are really groups of buds located in the axils of aborted
leaves. There is usually a central
bud in each eye surrounded by smaller lateral buds. The eyes are more abundant toward the apex of the tuber. Pieces of the tubers are cut at right
angles to the main axis so as to remove the inhibiting effect of the terminal
bud. The larger the piece the more
vigorous is the vegetative growth, which results in a greater yield. The tubers have a rest period of several
weeks after they have matured during which they will not sprout. This is a period of after ripening in
which several physiological changes occur.
The duration of the rest period can be controlled by the use of cold
and by various gases and chemicals. There are several regions in the
tubers. These include the skin or
periderm that varies in color, texture and thickness; the narrow cortex, a
dense area with small starch cells; a ring of fibro vascular bundles; the
external medulla, which contains most of the starch; and the internal
medulla, which has a greater percentage of water and less starch. Branches of the internal medulla extend
outward toward each eye. In all these
areas the starch occurs in typical oval grains of different sizes in
thin-walled parenchyma cells. The
mealiness of the potato is due to the swelling of the grains and the
rupturing of the cell walls. When the
external layers are low in starch the walls do not burst and the tuber
becomes soggy. Potatoes contain about
78 percent water, 18 percent carbohydrates, including some sugar as well as
starch, 2 percent proteins, 0.1 percent fat, and 1 percent potash. They are well adapted to storage in a cool
dark place. The water loss over
winter amounts to about 11 percent. Potatoes are grown over a wider
area of the world than any other crop.
The commercial production of potatoes is usually concentrated in areas
where both the climate and market conditions are most favorable. The larger tubers are used mainly for
human consumption while small tubers are converted into starch and industrial
alcohol and also fed to livestock. In the high Andes Mountain areas
of South America there are other species of Solanum cultivated by the
natives. Additionally there are other
tubers that have been important food plants for centuries in this area. The most important is Oca,
Oxalis
tuberosa,
an upright succulent herb with trifoliate leaves and orange yellow
flowers. Several varieties are
grown. The tubers contain calcium
oxylate crystals and must be mellowed in the sun before they are consumed. Ulluca or Melloco, Ullucus tuberosus, is second in importance.
The tubers appear as small potatoes.
The plants are resistant to frost and give a high yield. The Ańu, Tropaeolum tuberosum, is a twining plant
related to the garden nasturtium is of lesser importance. Arracacha, Arracacia xanthorrhiza, is native to the
Andes region. It is a robust herb
with large fleshy roots that is widely cultivated as a starchy food. Achira, Canna edulis, has an edible tuber
that is also one of the sources of Arrowroot starch. Yam Bean, Pachyrrhizus erosus, has tubers that are
consumed either cooked or raw. These are next to yams in
importance in Asia and they constitute the staple food for the masses. Over 1,020 varieties are grown. They are among the few edible aroids and
belong to the genus Colocasia. Taros and dasheens
are similar and are sometimes considered as variants of a single
species. There is no erect stem but a
cluster of large leaves from 4-6 ft. long. Taro, Colocasia antiquorum, is native to Southeastern Asia from where
it spread throughout Polynesia and the Pacific area. The plant has huge peltate leaves and has
been cultivated for so long that it never flowers. The tops of the corms are used to propagate taro. A wet rich soil and a long season are
required. The yield is high and the
starch is of good quality and readily digested. Hill (1952) noted that there was no word for indigestion in the
ancient Hawaiian language. Taros are
baked or broiled to destroy the acrid calcium oxylate crystals in the raw
tubers. A principal food of Polynesia
is Poi, a thin pasty mass of taro starch. It has a slight acid taste and is
palatable. It is frequently made into
cakes, baked or toasted. Dasheen, Colocasia esculenta, has large tubers with
smaller ones on the side. The flesh
is mealy with a nutty flavor and ahs more carbohydrates and proteins than
potatoes. Dasheens were grown as a
commercial crop in the southern United States since 1913 where the tubers
were used as a substitute for potatoes. These are some of the oldest of
the root crops and they are found only in tropical America. The most common species is Xanthosma sagittifolium. Yautias resemble taros to which they are
closely related. But they are taller
often reaching a height of 7-8 ft., with arrow-shaped leaves. They produce both corms and tubers. The plants are common in the West Indies,
especially in Puerto Rico, and many varieties are grown. The tubers are twice as nutritious as the
potato. Allium cepa is the main food plant
in which the food is stored in a bulb.
It is ancient, being known before 2,000 B.C. There are no wild onions.
It probably originated in Southern Asia or the Mediterranean
region. It has long been esteemed in
India and China for its flavor. It
was worshiped in Egypt before the Christian era and it also played a part in
the Druid rites. Onions are
cultivated over a large part of temperate and tropical climates. They prefer cool moist climates with a
sandy soil. They are started from
seeds or sets, small bulblets that are produced instead of flowers. Onions have to be dried and cured before
they are stored in order to develop the typical flavor and taste. These are due to an acrid volatile oil,
allyl sulphide. They are used both as
vegetables and flavoring agents.
There are more than 255 species of Allium known, some of which
are native to boreal America. Many
occur as weeds. The most common
cultivated forms are garlic, chives, leeks, shallots and the true onions. Garlic, Allium sativum, is a perennial with
narrow flat leaves and several small egg-shaped bulbs, called cloves,
enclosed in a white skin. The inflorescences
produce both seeds and bulblets. The
latter together with the cloves and the leaves have been used since ancient
times for flavoring salads, soups and meats.
Garlic also possesses bactericidal and antiseptic properties. Leek,
Allium porrum, is also an ancient
plant. It is a hardy perennial of the
Mediterranean region with thick, flat, broad leaves and small bulbs. The bases of the leaves are mild flavored
and edible and they are often blanched like asparagus. They are used for flavoring stews and
soups. Chives,
Allium schoenoprasum, have hollow and
cylindrical leaves with small clustered bulbs and dense umbels of
rose-colored flowers. They are hardy
perennials that grow in dense clumps.
The young leaves and bulbs are for seasoning. Shallots, Allium ascalonicum also have cylindrical
hollow leaves but the plants are not cespitose. They are perennials with large clustered leaves that are widely
used in pickling. The leaves are
short and shaped like an awl. True Onions, Allium
cepa,
are biennials with a single large bulb and long, hollow cylindrical
leaves. A single leafless scape
arises from each bulb and may attain a height of 2-3 ft. There are numerous small flowers. Many different forms occur with either
round, flat, white or colored bulbs.
Spanish and Bermuda onions are large and mild flavored. The early colonists brought onions to
America and division, bulblets and seeds propagate them. They are used for flavoring, as a
vegetable, for pickles and in medicine.
These plants have nutrient materials stored in structures that develop
above the ground. They are the pot
herbs and salad plants. Many parts of
the shoot system of the plant may be utilized for storage. Leaves are used in cabbage, spinach, kale
and lettuce; stems are used in kohlrabi and asparagus; buds are used in
Brussels sprouts; leafstalks are used in rhubarb and celery; and immature
flowers and flower stalks are used in broccoli and cauliflower. The food value and chemical make-up of
herbage vegetables are similar to those of the earth vegetables. However, there is more water and therefore
a smaller amount of carbohydrate.
They contain more proteins because the leaves are the chemical plants
of the plant, and also a large amount of mineral salts and vitamins that make
them an essential part of the human diet.
There is also the value gained from plant fiber. Cynara scolymus is indigenous to the Mediterranean
region and Canary Islands. The
artichoke plant resembles a thistle in size and growth habit. Flower stalks end in globular
inflorescences with many subtending involueral bracts. The immature heads and the fleshy bases of
the leaves and the thickened receptacle are consumed usually after
cooking. Artichokes prefer low ground
near seacoasts. They are widely
cultivated in Central and Southern Europe and California. Pickled artichoke hearts are a popular
item. Asparagus officinalis is indigenous to
temperate Europe and Western Asia and may still be seen growing wild in that
region. I has been prized since Roman
times and widely grown throughout Europe.
It was introduced to America with the first Post-Columbian colonists. it ahs perennial roots that sent up an
erect branching stem several feet tall.
It has modified branches called cladophylls, which is typical of the
entire genus, including the asparagus fern.
The axillary flowers are small and the fruit is a berry. The new shoots are juicy and succulent,
and these are the asparagus that is consumed. The plant becomes bushy and woody if the shoots are allowed to
develop. it thrives best in fertile
well-drained soil in humid temperate climates with an abundance of sunshine. it can be grown from seed or from one
year-old crowns. The plant may live
for 15-20 years. The shoots are
consumed either green or blanched.
For best flavor asparagus should be cooked within 12 hours of
picking. The food value is low and
the water content is about 94 percent, but there is more protein present than
in most vegetables. Sometimes the
pulp may be dried or canned as a paste.
Asparagus also has a medicinal value. Cabbage, Brassica oleracea, is an ancient and
very important herbage vegetable. The
wild ancestor is the colewort, a stout weedy perennial of the coastal areas
of Great Britain and Southwestern Europe.
A great variety of cultivated forms have been produced by selection
from this plant. A Mediterranean type
climate is most suitable, but cabbage will grom from the arctic to the
subtropics. Cultivation is very
ancient, at least since 2,500 B.C..
Several varieties were known to the Greeks and Romans (e.g., true
cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower). it
became an important plant in Scotland and Ireland at an early date. Today the plants are grown worldwide
except in the low tropics. Cabbage
contains the antiscorbutic Vitaminn C
and is also rich in sulfur. It is the
most varied of all cultivated plants.
The most common forms include the collards or kales, Brussels sprouts,
head cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli and kohlrabi. In kale and Brussels sprouts the stem of the first year is
elongated while in the others it is very short Brassica oleracea var. acephala is erect and
branching. These plants are also
known as Borecole or Marrow
Cabbage and they are very close to the wild form. They have many large broad leaves that are
used as a boiled green vegetable or livestock feed.. The plants are resistant to cold, heat and
drought. Giant cabbage kales of
England may rach a height of 8-9 ft. and the stout stems can be used for
rafters or canes. Brassica oleracea var.
gemmifera
has the axillary buds on the erect stem developing into little heads. These miniature cabbages are the consumed
vegetable. Both tall and dwarf forms
occur. Brussels sprouts are
cool-season plants and are more tender and delicate than common cabbage. Brassica oleracea var.
capitata
is the familiar cabbage with a short stem and a great mass of thick
overlapping leaves that form a head.
The older leaves surround the younger, smaller and more tender leaves and
the miniature stem, so that when sectioned it resembles a huge bud. There are many varieties that hive either
smooth or curled leaves. The latter
are the Savoy cabbages with excellent flavor. Both green and red cabbages are grown. Cabbage is adapted to cool climates and
can be grown on heavy soil. The plant
is very old and was introduced into England by the Romans. Cabbage contains 91 percent water with
some sugar and starch, considerable protein and valuable lime salts. It is consumed ray as Slaw or
cooked. Steaming is preferred to
boiling because the nutrients are retained.
Sauerkraut is cabbage fermented in its own
juice together with salt. Lactic acid
bacteria act on the sugar to produce lactic acid that is responsible for the
sour taste. Sauerkraut originated in
Asia and spread westward throughout Europe in early times. Brassica oleracea var.
gongylodes
does not form a head, but the short stem is transformed into a juicy mass,
which stands out of the ground. It is
large, spherical and turnip like, white or purple in color with large leaf
scars. Kohlrabi is an early spring or
fall crop as it does not do well in hot weather. It has been considered a distinct species, Brassica caulorapa. Cauliflower and Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)
In both of these forms there is a short erect stem with an undeveloped
inflorescence. In Cauliflower he
whole inflorescence forms a large head of aborted flowers on thick
hypertrophied branches. The leaves
are frequently tied around the mass of flowers to keep them white. In Broccoli the heads are smaller and the
leaves larger and the whole plant remains green. These are ancient cultivated plants that are more delicate and
easier to digest than cabbage. Apium graveolens var.
dulce is
indigenous to temperate Europe from England to Asia Minor. Wild plants are tough and rank bear an
acrid and poisonous juice. it grows
in ditches, marshes and other wet places.
Under cultivation it is a biennial that forms a fleshy root and clump
of compound leaves with long leafstalks.
The stalks are large and succulent and their quality is improved by
blanching before harvest. This is
accomplished by placing boards, soil or paper around them to shut out light
and so to prevent chlorophyll from developing. Celery requires a rich sandy loam and lost of water. It is grown as a winter crop in the
subtropics and as a summer crop in temperate regions. Celery was originally grown in the
Old World for its foliage that was used for flavoring and as a garnish and
for medicinal purposes. The roots are
often boiled. The outer stalks that
are too tough to consume are used as a basis for cream of celery soup. Celery seeds are grown to be used as Savory. The larger
turniplike roots of a European variety, Celeriac (Apium graveolens var.
rapaceum)
are used for flavoring and soups. Chicory, Cichorium intybus, and Endive, C. endivia, have been cultivated since
the Middle Ages but still retain their wild appearance and have not been
greatly modified from the wild plants. Chicory is a perennial with a long
taproot, coarse branching stem and abundant basal leaves. The flowers are generally blue. This plant is native to Europe but has
escaped cultivation in America. it is
used as a salad plant or for greens.
The roasted root is an important adulterant of coffee Endive, an annual or biennial, is
indigenous to India and was a favorite salad plant of the ancient Egyptians
and Greeks. The young basal leaves
often have curled margins and are used in salad. They may be blanched before use. Lactuca sativa is native to Southern
Europe and Western Asia. It is a
descendent of the wild lettuce, Lactuca scariola, a common weed of roadsides and waste land in both
Hemispheres. Three varieties of
lettuce were cultivated by the ancient Greeks, and Persian kings used it
before 300 B.C. (Hill 1952). The
Moors developed many varieties among them the Romaine
Lettuce. The plant has a basal
rosette of leaves and later in the season a stalk with flowers and
fruits. Lettuce has a milky
juice. it has little food value
except for vitamins and iron salts.
There are several hundred varieties grown. The plant thrives in sandy or loamy soil and requires cool
weather and partial shade in summer.
Principal varieties include head lettuce, cos, romaine and leaf lettuce. Rheum rhaponticum has succulent acid
leafstalks. Native to Asia it is a
perennial with large rhizomes and it produces a number of very large leaves
early in the season. Later an
elongated flower stalk develops that bears dense masses of tiny white
flowers. It is widely cultivated as a
food plant and occasionally as an ornamental, in temperate regions of Europe
and America. Rhubarb is nearly 95
percent water with a little sugar and fat and salts of oxalic and malic
acid. The stems are used for pies and
sauces and a wine is made from the juice.
The leaves should be avoided as they are poisonous. Spinacia oleracea is a common herbage
vegetable used for greens. Native to
Southwestern Asia it is widely cultivated in cool regions where there is an
abundance of wat er. It produces a large
number of basal leaves early in the season, and later the flowering
portion. Spinach is an annual that
occurs as several forms. It is used
as a pot herb and cooked vegetable. Chinese Cabbage, Brassica pekinensis and B. chinensis, is an annual plant
used for greens and salads. Dandelion, Taraxacum officinale, is popular for its
greens collected in the wild state. Water Cress, Nasturtium
officinale,
is an aquatic perennial that is used for salads. New Zealand Spinach, Tetragona expansa, is a warm-weather
crop where only the tender young leaves are used. Tampala, Amaranthus
gangeticus,
is a kind of lettuce with both red and green varieties. Additionally, there are many wild species
used by local residents for pot herbs, especially in springtime. The leaves of turnips, beets and mustard
are also favored.
These are technically fruits but are consumed as vegetables, many
requiring cooking. Most of them resemble
other vegetables, the avocado being an exception. Persea americana, the avocado or
alligator pear, is a species with many different varieties occurring from
Mexico to South America. The brownish-green
pear-shaped fruit varies from 4-6 in. in length, is actually a one-seeded
berry. The pulp surrounding the large
seed has a buttery consistency and contains up to 30 percent fat,
considerable carbohydrate and more proteins than any other fruit. The vitamin content is also very
high. There are over 500 varieties
and three major races: the
Guatemalan, West Indian and Mexican.
These differ in shape, size and hardiness as well as fat content. A few dwarf varieties such as Gwen and
Little Cotto have been developed.
Avocados have been used since ancient times in America and are
consumed either fresh or cooked. The Guacamole of Mexico is a favorite dish that combines
avocado flesh with chile pepper, garlic, lime juice and other spices. Jack Fruit & Breadfruit
<Photos> Breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis, has been a valuable
human food in tropical countries of the world. It has been cultivated since antiquity. This is a very handsome tree with deeply
incised leaves that reaches a height of 40-60 ft. The fruits are prickly and about the size of a melon. They are brownish yellow when ripe with a
fibrous yellow pulp. These are often
borne in small clusters. The fruit is
consumed fresh or cooked. It may be
broiled, baked, fried roasted or ground up and used for bread. During the months when the fruit is not
available a paste that has been stored is used. There are over 110 varieties of breadfruit, some being
seedless. There are few fruits trees
that give a greater yield. An 8-year
old tree may produce 700-800 fruits.
The carbohydrate content is very high. Jackfruit, Artocarpus heterophyllus, is similar. an Indo-Malayan species, it is now widely
dispersed in tropical countries. It
is also a handsome tree that may reach of height of 60-70 ft. The leaves are entire and huge fruits, 1-2
ft. long weighting 20-40 lbs. are borne on the trunk. Chayote (Chocho) Sechium edule is a trailing vine
native to tropical America. It produces
gourd like fruit that is used as a vegetable. The fruits are actually pepos, berries with a spongy pulp and a
hard firm rind. Chayote is a
perennial with large tuberous roots.
Both fruits and tubers were used since ancient times in Neotropical America. The plants grow vigorously and have a
prolific yield. Both the tubers and
young and old fruits are consumed, but the foliage can be used as greens or
forage and the young shoots are a substitute for asparagus. The flavor varies with the age of the
fruit. The straw is valuable for
making hats and baskets. It is a good
bee plant and is sometimes planted for ornamental purposes. Cucumis sativus is a gourd fruit that
is believed to have originated in India.
It was cultivated since before 2,000 B.C. Reference to cucumber is found in the earliest writings of
Hebrews, Egyptians and Greeks. The
plant reached Europe by the 17th Century.
it is a rough-stemmed trailing vine with yellow axillary flowers and
round to elongated prickly fruits.
The water content is around 96 percent. Cucumbers are consumed raw, pickled or cooked Pickles are
made from small cucumbers or special varieties. The fruits are soaked in brine and treated with boiling
vinegar. Sometimes dill and other
spices are added to provide a distinctive flavor.
Solanum melongena is indigenous in India
but is widely grown worldwide.
Several taxonomic varieties exist.
The plant is an erect branching herb that may reach a few feet in
height. The fruit is a berry that
varies from large ovoid to slender, whitish or purple. Cultivation is as an annual that requires
a high temperature. The fruit is cut
into slices and fried or broiled. Hibiscus
esculentus is
native to tropical Africa. It was
being cultivated in Europe by 1216 A.D.
The plant is a stout annual that resembles cotton in its habit. The young pods are mucilaginous and are
favored in soups under the name Gumbo, the Spanish word for
okra. It may be cooked in several
ways. Young pods when cooked resemble
asparagus in flavor. It is frequently
dried or canned. The stems and mature
pods yield a fiber that is used to make paper and for textiles. These are gourd fruits native to
America that belong to the genus Cucurbita. The several cultivated species have never
been found in the wild state and have been important in the diet of
Amerindians since antiquity. There
had been some speculation that the genus originated in Africa. At least two varieties were grown in Peru
as early as 2,000 B.C. Cucurbita pepo was cultivated by North
American peoples also since about 2,000 B.C. and Cucurbita moschata by 312 A.D. These plants are coarse annual
vines with large yellow flowers and fruits that rest on the ground
surface. The many varieties are
insect pollinated and readily cross.
For example, they may be grown in glasshouses in the presence of
mosquito colonies maintained in tanks of water. Immature fruits are used as fresh vegetables stewed, boiled or
fried, while mature fruit5s are baked, canned or fed to livestock. The seeds are high in fats and proteins
and can be utilized as a source of an edible vegetable oil. Pumpkin seeds that are fried in oil and
salted are available as Pepitos. Cucurbita pepo includes the field
pumpkins that are used for pies, canning and livestock feed; the summer or crookneck
squashes, acorn squashes, scallop squashes, pattypans or cymlings; zucchinis;
vegetable marrows; and small inedible gourds grown for ornamental
purposes. Cucurbita moschata includes autumn and
winter varieties such as the butternut squash. Cucurbita
mixta
includes the cushaw squashes and some gourds. Cucurbita
maxima include
such autumn and winter squashes as the buttercup, mammoth, Hubbard and
turban. Cucurbita ficifolia is the only perennial
species that was cultivated by Amerindians in Neotropical America since
ancient times and was undoubtedly used also to make containers. This species in clues the Malabar and
other ornamental gourds. Lycopersicon esculentum is thought to have
originated in the Peru-Ecuador area, from which it spread northward in
Pre-Columbian times to Mexico where it became domesticated. Tomato was transported to Europe by
Spanish explorers. it was originally
considered to be poisonous and was grown for ornamental purposes only under
the names of Tomatl, Love Apple or Pomme d’Amour. Tomatoes are coarse, branching,
erect or trailing herbs with a true berry for fruit. They differ in habit depending on
environmental conditions. There are
over 180 varieties among which several taxonomic groups may exist. They are perennials in warmer regions but
generally are grown as annuals.
Tomatoes are consumed raw or cooked and in preserves. They are particularly high in
vitamins. Only the pulp retains the
characteristic flavor. The waste
consisting of skins, cores, seeds and unripe parts are used to extract a
fixed oil that can be used for food, soap or as a drying oil. The oil cake is valuable livestock
feed. Ripe tomatoes are also used for
sauces, ketchup, and tomato juice and tomato paste. Green tomatoes are used for pickles and preserves or are fried.
Peppers belonging to the genus Capsicum are increasingly used
as vegetables instead of only as a spice.
However, they are considered further in the section, Spices and Other Flavoring
Substances Olives, which are frequently
consumed as vegetables in salads and cooked dishes, are discussed under, “Fruits of Tropical & Subtropical
Regions.” |