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Minor Cereals & Small Grain
& Pseudocereals
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Barley Rye Oats Small Grains Sorghum Broomcorn
Sweet Sorghums
Grain Sorghums Durra Milo Shallu Koaliang
Feterita Hegari Millets Foxtail Millet Proso Millet
Pearl Millet Ragi Misc Grains Wild Rice Job’s Tears
Pseudo Cereals
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Barley Barley, Hordeum vulgare, is an ancient cultivated
cereal that was in use even before wheat.
Pliny reported it as the most ancient human food, and even today it is
believed to be the oldest of all cultivated plants. Barley was known to all ancient civilizations of the Old World,
and the Lake Dwellers of Europe knew about three different varieties. Vavilov believed that barley originated in
the arid lands of Southwestern Asia, Northern Africa and also in Southeastern
Asia. It arrived in the Western
Hemisphere in the 16th or 17th Century. Barley is an annual that tends to
become perennial. It is related to
wheat that it resembles to a great extent.
It usually attains a height of no more than three feet. The flower is a dense head with three
sessile spikelets alternating at each joint of the straight axis. Most barley is bearded, although some are
without beards. The grains that are
often colored remain enclosed in a husk formed by the subtending scales. Grain structure is similar to that of
other cereals. The genus Hordeum contains over 20 species, most
of which are weeds in temperate regions.
Hordeum vulgare consists of many different strains. Classification of the different species is
difficult and opinions differ.
Nevertheless, there seems to be two well-defined groups, the 6-rowed
forms and the 2-rowed forms. In the
former (H. vulgare & H. intermedium), all the spikelets are
fertile. In the latter (H. distichum
& H. deficiens), the lateral spikelets are sterile, so that only
two rows develop. It is not known which
group is the ancestor of H. vulgare. The wild barley, H. spontaneum, of Western Asia is
generally considered to be the progenitor of our cultivated forms, but it is
possible that there may have been two ancestral species (Hill 1952).
This is a very hardy cereal with a short growing season so that it can
be grown at high latitudes and altitudes.
It is adapted to a wide variety of soils and climates. In the Rocky Mountains of the United
States it is grown at 7,500 ft. elevation and in the Andes at 11,000 ft. In Alaska it is produced at latitude of 65
deg. North and in Russia it can be grown on the shores of the Arctic
Ocean. Also barley is not confined to
solely colder regions, as it is an important crop in Turkey, France and
California where both winter and spring barley crops are grown. The main barley centers are Japan and
China, Russia, Turkey and Rumania; Western Europe; northern India; California
and the northern prairie states (Hill 1952). Barley was the principal source of bread flour until
the 16th century and has remained a staple food in northern countries through
the 20th Century. Wheat has generally
replaced barley by the 21st Century.
Barley ahs a high nutritive value although it is poor flour for bread
due to the low gluten content.
Unleavened barley cakes are a favorite food in rural Scotland and
other northern countries. The husk is
ground off which yields pot barley.
If more of the grain is ground the familiar pearl barley is
produced. It is widely used in
soups. Barley is also used in
breakfast foods and food for small children.
The 6-rowed types have higher protein content and are principally used
for food purposes, both for humans and livestock. Although most of the crop is used as a feed for
livestock, about 20-25 percent is used as a source of malt for making
alcohol, whisky, beer and similar beverages and various malt extracts and
breakfast foods. For this purpose the
2-rowed types, with a low protein content, a softer, mealy endosperm and
think hull are preferred. Barley is
also used for hay and pasture and as a smother crop to kill weeds. The straw is used for livestock feed and
bedding. Russia leads the world in the production of barley with
China, the United States and Germany with lesser acreage. Rye, Secale cereale, is of more recent origin
than the other cereals. It is
believed that S. montanum, a wild species of Afghanistan and
Turkestan, may be the wild ancestor.
But some also believe that S. anatolicum of Asia Minor is the
ancestor. Nevertheless rye is most
likely a native of the Caspian and Black Seas region of Central Eurasia. It has been cultivated for a much shorter
time than the other cereals. No
traces of rye have been found in ruins of Egypt or the Lake Dwellings,
although the Greeks and Romans knew the plant. Rye is related to barley and wheat and resembles the
former in habit. The grain looks more
like wheat. The stalks are slender
and tough, reaching a maximum height of 6 ft. The leaves are bluish in color. The heads consist of a large number of spikelets that are
produced singly at the joints of the axis and each one contains two fertile
flowers. The grains have a normal
structure. There are few varieties of
rye. Rye is very adaptable and will produce satisfactory
crops in regions of severe winter temperatures and at high altitudes. It does well on poor soil and in arid
areas, and has been called the “grain of poverty.” However, it thrives best on more fertile soil and in a mild
climate. Rye is primarily a plant of Europe where over 90
percent of the world’s crop is produced and consumed. It is used there principally for brad
because the grain contains gluten.
Rye bread is dark colored and soggy and has a slight bitter
flavor. Until the middle of the 19th
Century it was the main food of one-third of Europe’s population. Rye became an important bread crop in
America after 1776. Rye may also be used for hay and pasture, as a winter
cover to prevent erosion and leaching, as a sand binder and in crop
rotation. The straw is valuable for
it is very tough and was once in demand for hats, bedding, and packing
purposes and in the manufacture of paper and various other straw
products. The grain is used for
livestock feed and as a source of whisky and alcohol. Russia is the main producer of rye. Germany, Poland and other central European
countries also produce large amounts.
North America exports considerable amounts of rye to other countries. There has never been any cultivated wild oat plant
found even though those that escape cultivated fields often appear wild. Therefore the ancestral home of oats is difficult
to verify. Avena sativa is the
main commercial species. The wild
species Avena fativa or A. brevis may be ancestors of
cultivated oats. It probably had
multiple origins, some emanating from Abyssinia others from the Mediterranean
area and from China. The Lake
Dwellers of Switzerland grew oats but it was unknown in the Mediterranean
region at that same period. The height of oats varies from 2-5 feet. The leaves are abundant and bluish-green;
the inflorescence is a one-sided or spreading panicle that may be either
erect or drooping. The panicles
contain about 75 spikelets, which are 2-to many-flowered and which are
protected by long pendant outer scales.
The grain that is surrounded by a hull formed by the inner scales,
except in the “naked” varieties, contains two aleurone layers. Avena sativa, the principal cultivated species,
is variable in growth form and has been improved by breeding and
selection. Other cultivated species
are the side oat, A. orientalis, the red oat, A. byzantina, the
naked oat, A. nuda, and the short oat, A. brevis. Both winter and spring oats are grown, the former in
milder climates as are found in the Mediterranean area and California. Spring oats are adapted best in the cool moist
climates such as are characteristic of Northern Europe and northeastern North
America. Commercial oat crops may be
harvested farther north than any other cereal except rye. They reach latitude of 69 deg. North in
Alaska and 65 deg. North in Scandinavia. An island climate is especially favorable. By the middle of the 20th Century one
third of all cultivated land in Scotland was devoted to Oats and in Ireland
over half of the land. Heavy soils
are preferred, but oats may be grown on any tillable soil. The genus has a high water requirement and
so is not profitable in regions of high temperature unless the plants are
heavily irrigated. The fields are sown broadcast and are cultivated and
harrowed. Other crops may be planted
with oats. Harvest is when the leaves
are still green and when the grain is not fully ripe. Stacking and capping the stalks improve
the quality. Oats are cut with a
scythe or harvester similar to hay. This is the most nutritious of all cereals for humans
because of the high fat, protein and mineral content. Oatmeal has muscle building qualities and
because of its high energy content is especially well suited as a food in
cold weather and by people who lead an active outdoor life. It has been proven to lower cholesterol
levels in the human body. The protein
material does not occur in the form of gluten and thus is not suited for
making bread. Its main use is in
cakes, biscuits and breakfast food.
Oatmeal is prepared by grinding the grains coarsely between stones. Rolled oats are made more carefully. Grains are thoroughly cleaned and kiln
dried. They are graded by size and
run through millstones, which grind off the husk. The husks are removed by suction, and the remaining groats are softened and crushed by rollers in steam
chests. Oats is the principal grain feed for horses and may be
used for other livestock except pigs.
Usually 70 percent or more of the domestic crop is used directly on
the farms where it is grown. Oats may
also be grown for hay or green forage and are used in crop rotation or as
nurse plants. The United States has led the world in the production
of oats, with Iowa, Minnesota, Illinois and Wisconsin leading. The flavor of crops grown in Oregon is
especially good but the production is relatively low. Europe, including Russia, are also large
producers A large number of widely cultivated African grasses are
called sorghums. They include some of
the first wild species to be domesticated by humans. Sorghum was grown in Egypt before 2,200
B.C. and has continued as an important crop there ever since. It was cultivated in China and India in
ancient times. Sorghums have been
dispersed from Africa to all temperate regions as well as in the
tropics. They are less nutritious
than maize but they are a staple food in Africa and Asia. Sorghums are also used for livestock feed
and forage; in the manufacture of brushes, paper and syrup; and in Asia for
many other purposes. Sorghums are tall coarse annuals that grow to a height
of 3-15 feet and resemble maize in growth form. The inflorescence is a dense head or panicle, and the grains
are smaller and rounder than those of the true cereals. The root system is shallow and twice as
extensive as that of maize, and the leaf area is only one half as great. These characteristics along with the
highly absorptive nature of the roots and the ability of the leaves to roll
up in dry weather enable the plants to survive a great amount of heat and
evaporation. Their low water
requirement renders them especially drought resistant so they are good crops
in semiarid and arid regions where the growth of maize is restricted. In North America the cultivated sorghums are usually
referred to as Sorghum vulgare.
This was derived from the perennial Johnson grass, Sorghum
halepensis, and Old World species grown as a forage grass inn the warmer
areas of both hemispheres. In other
areas the various varieties are often considered as distinct species. Four types of sorghum are grown in North
America. These include the grass
sorghums, such as Sudan grass (var. sudanensis) and the Tunis grass (S.
virgatum), used exclusively for hay and pasturage; the broom corns, used
in the manufacture of brushes; the sweet or saccharine sorghums, used for
forage and for syrup production; and the grain or nonsaccharine sorghums,
which are cultivated for the grain and to some extent for forage. It has been suspected that both the sweet
and grain sorghums were known to the early colonists in North America, but
the plants failed to establish.
However, they have become increasingly important since the middle of
the 19th Century. <bot689> Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) [Tropical
Africa] Broomcorn, Sorghum vulgare var. technicum, has
stems that are dry and the inflorescence is a long, loose, many-branched
panicle with a short axis. The
spikelets are small and produce reddish-brown seeds. The elongated branches of the panicle are
used in the manufacture of brooms and brushes. Broomcorn was probably derived by selection from a sweet
sorghum. It has been cultivated in
Europe for centuries and has been grown in North America since 1797. Sweet sorghums, Sorghum vulgare var. saccharatum,
also called sorgos or forage sorghums, are tall leafy plants with an abundant
sweet juice. They are used in the
manufacture of a syrup that has a distinctive but pleasant taste. They are also used for forage and
silage. The black amber sorgos are
from China and were introduced into North America in 1853 from France. The other types, such as sumac, gooseneck
and orange, originated in South Africa and were brought to the southeastern
United States from Natal in 1857. If
used for livestock feed, caution must be taken to harvest the crop before
heavy frost as this can raise the prussic acid content. Grain sorghum plants are stockier
than the sweet sorghums and have dry or only slightly juicy pith. They have been raised in North America
since 1874 when durea was introduced.
This was followed by kafir in 1876, milo in 1880-1885, shallu in 1890,
the koliangs from 1808-1910, feterita in 1906 and 1908 and hegari in 1908
(Hill 1952). Over fifty varieties and
hybrids have been grown. Grain
sorghums are especially well adapted to the conditions of soil and climate
that prevail in the southern Great Plains and drier points west. The grain is valuable as livestock feed
and forage. In some countries these
sorghums furnish a staple food for humans as well as for livestock, and have
many industrial uses as well. During
World War II much sorghum was used to make industrial alcohol and other
products previously derived from sugar cane. Durras are the principal type of grain sorghum grown in
Northern Africa, Southwestern Asia and parts of India, where millions of
acres are cultivated. The plants have
dry stems; compact, goose necked, bearded heads; flattened seeds; and they mature
early. The seeds are useful as
poultry feed. Sometimes other
varieties are grouped under the durras.
In North America white durra (var. cernuum, was at one time
popular and was grown under the name of Egyptian corn or Jerusalem corn. A dwarf form is somewhat more common. The brown durra, var. durra, has
also been grown in California. Kafir corn, Sorghum vulgare var. caffrorum, is
native to tropical Africa but has been spread worldwide. It is an important food plant and many forms
are cultivated. Its peculiar and
characteristic flavor is not widely appreciated in North America, but it is
highly nutritious and is similar in maize in composition and ease of
digestion. The plants are stout,
stocky and from 4-7 feet in height.
The leafy stems have slightly acid juicy pith and are valuable as
forage. The inflorescences are long,
slender, cylindrical, beardless heads that produce small, oval, white or
colored seeds, which are late to mature.
Standard Blackhull kafir has been the most important variety of all
the grain sorghums grown in the United States. The milos, Sorghum vulgare var. subglabrescens,
are also of African origin. They have
slightly juicy stems; compact, usually bearded heads that are usually recurved
or goose necked; and large soft yellow or white seeds. They frequently produce suckers. The plants are adapted to moisture
conditions and respond well to irrigation.
Dwarf yellow milo has been ranked second in importance among the grain
sorghums. Over 12 varieties have been
grown in North America. Maturation is
late but a bit earlier than kafir. Shallu, Sorghum vulgare var. roxburghii, is a
late-maturing sorghum that was introduced from India where it is extensively
grown as a winter crop. It has tall,
dry, slender stems and long open panicles.
The small, hard, white seeds are exposed when mature. The Gulf States of North America generally
produce this variety. The kaoliangs, Sorghum vulgare var. nervosum,
are from China and constitute one of the oldest and most important crops in
that region. They have furnished
grain, sugar and forage for thousands of years and all parts of the plant
have some economic value. Kaoliangs
have dry slender stalks with few leaves; loose or compact erect heads, and
small brown or white seeds. By
maturing early they can be grown farther north than the other grain sorghums,
but the yield is comparatively low.
They have never been widely grown in North America.
Feterita, Sorghum
vulgare var. caudatum, is an importation from the Sudan. It has dry, erect and compact stalks, oval
heads and very large, soft, white seeds.
It matures early and produces a crop in seasons with a limited amount
of water. Three kinds have been grown
mainly in Kansas and Texas. Hegari, Sorghum vulgare var. caffrorum, is a
form of kafir. It produces leafy
juicy stems, which sucker freely, and in other respects it seems to be
intermediate between kafir and feterita.
It is very variable as to maturation and yield. It has been grown to some extent in
Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. Millet is a term loosely applied
to a large number of cultivated grasses that have very small seeds. The millets are used for forage and as a
food for both humans and livestock.
The importance of millet is not appreciated in North America or
Europe, but almost one-third of the world’s population uses these grains as
regular food. The plants have
abundant foliage and are much used for forage. Millets are very drought-resistant and have been grown
extensively in the Great Plains area of North America. They are cold sensitive and cannot be planted
where frost lingers. In North America
millets are used mainly as hay crops, pasturage and for birdseed, although
some varieties are sued for grain.
Millets are among the most ancient of food grains that have been grown
in China since 2,700 B.C. Their
origin is though to be in Eastern Asia.
The most important varieties are discussed as follows: There are over 12 varieties of foxtail millets, Setaria
italica, which commonly occur as weeds.
They bear different names, such as German, Italian, Hungarian and
Siberian millet. The plants are small
compared to other cultivated grasses and they have a dense spike for an
inflorescence, with many long or short bristles. One group has short, thick and erect heads. Another group has long and drooping
heads. Their origin is not definitely
known but there is some agreement that they have been derived from Setaria
viridis, a common wild grass of the Old World. This plant is thought to have originated in Easter Asia and not
Europe, as the common names would indicate.
Millet must have been domesticated in the Orient in ancient times for
it was one of the five sacred plants in China as early as 2,700 B.C. Millet seeds are abundant in the lake
Dwellings of Switzerland, but the plant was seemingly unknown in Syria and
Greece. Foxtail millets have been
widely grown in China, Japan, India and the East Indies as well as other
parts of Asia the Old World and North Africa. Cultivation has also been in North America especially as a
forage crop. To prepare foxtail
millet as a food, the grains are boiled or parched. It is important as a hay and forage crop. It has been widely used in crop
rotation, and as a supplementary or catch crop after some other crop has
failed. This is made possible because
of its only 6-10 weeks required for maturity. Proso, Panicum miliaceum, is true millet, the milium of Roman times. It has also been called Broomcorn
Millet, Hog Millet, Russian Millet and Indian
Millet. Proso probably
originated in the eastern Mediterranean region, and it has been under long cultivation
in Europe especially in the Swiss Lake Dweller community. It grows to a height of 2-3 feet with an
open, branching, compact or one-sided panicle. The grains are multicolored and are closely surrounded by the
scales of the spikelet. Proso is grown
in Russia, China, India, Japan and Southern Europe. It became popular in North America for use as a forage grain
because it is very nutritious. The
grains contain carbohydrates, 10 percent protein and 4 percent fat. It is excellent for hogs and is much used
as a substitute for maize or sorghum.
Palatable bread is made from fresh grains. Pearl Millet, Pennisetum glaucum, is a tall
plant that grows 6-15 ft. tall with 3-8 compact cylindrical spikes bearing
white grains. It is grown in Egypt,
India and Africa as a wet-season crop.
It not only furnishes food for the masses but also is especially
valuable in cold weather as a fuel plant.
Flour made from Pearl Millet is very nutritious and is used for bread
or cake. It produces a lot of forage
that is succulent when young and can be cut several times in a growing
season. It has been introduced into
America as a forage crop. The wild
ancestor is unknown. Ragi, Eleusine coracna, is a tall grass that is also
known as Finger Millet, African Millet or Korakan. It has tufted stems, each with 4-6
spikes. Both upland and irrigated
forms are grown from Northern Africa to Indonesia. Ragi gives a very high yield often exceeding 1,500 lbs. per
acre. It even yields abundantly on
poor soil. It is a major crop in
India, especially during the rainy season and is an important food. The grain is free from insects and can be
stored for long periods. Ragi flour
is used for puddings and cakes and a fermented beverage is made from the
grain. Other millets belong to the genus Echinochloa. The Japanese
or Sanwa Millet, E. frumentacea,
is an erect awnless grass with turgid purplish seeds. it has been cultivated in the United
States entirely as a forage crop for which it is very desirable because it
produces as many as eight crops in any given year and has a large leaf
area. In Asia it serves as a food
plant and is consumed as a porridge with rice. In Japan it is grown in areas where rice will not
flourish. A smaller species, the Shama Millet, E. colona, is also valuable
as a forage and food crop, especially in the East Indies and India. it is
favored by laborers and is eaten by Hindus on fasting days. The common Barnyard
Millet, E. crusgalli, which is a weed in North America,
is cultivated in India and the Far East as a forage and food crop under the
name “Bharti.” Wild rice, Zizania aquatica var. angustifolia,
is harvested from wild and cultivated plants in North America. It is a tall anjnual grass that grows
partially submerged along the margins of lakes and sluggish streams inland,
and even in brackish areas along the coast, frequently covering hundreds of
acres. It has been an important food
of the Amerindians in eastern North America.
The grains are borne in slender panicles and drop off readily when
mature. The ancient way of harvest
involved pushing canoes through the rice plants and beating off the grains
into the bottom of the canoe. Later
the grains were dried in the sun or over fires and the husk was pounded or
charred off. Modern methods of
harvest and processing have expedited the harvest. Wild rice is very nutritious and palatable especially when
served with fowl and game. It is an
essential food for wild water fowl.
The seeds will only germinate if they have been constantly kept under
water. Wild rice also occurs in Western Asia where the young stems and
leaves are used as a vegetable and the straw is used for paper. In the United States wild rice is grown
commercially in Oregon and California and the northern Midwest States. This is a grass,
Coix lachryma-jobi, native to Southeastern Asia. It has been cultivated in most tropical
countries. It has large, shining,
pear shaped fruits, which bear a resemblance to tears. These grains are used as human food and
are also said to have medicinal properties.
Some varieties, particularly the Philippine Adlay,
are good for forage. The fruits are
used mainly for ornamental purposes, being made into necklaces, mats,
rosaries, etc. A beer-like beverage
is made from the seeds. There are many other plants that are used in a manner
similar to the cereals and smaller grains as sources of human food. These are not grasses but have often been
referred to as cereals. Buckwheat,
Breadfruit and Quinoa are three of them Breadfruit, Artocarpus utilis, is actually a
fruit with the flavor of bread when fried.
It is native to Malaya and Polynesia but is now widespread in the
tropics. It has been cultivated since
antiquity. This handsome tree reaches
a height of from 40-60 feet with deeply incised leaves. The prickly fruits are about the size of a
cantaloupe, are brownish yellow when ripe with a fibrous yellow pulp. They are often borne in small
clusters. The fruit is eaten fresh or
cooked. It is baked, broiled, roasted,
fried or ground up and used for bread.
During the few months when the fruit cannot be obtained a paste that
has previously been made is utilized.
There are over 100 varieties known, some with seeds and others
without. There are few plants that
furnish a more wholesome food for humans and animals, or have a greater
yield. An eight-year-old tree may
produce 700-800 fruits. The
carbohydrate content is particularly high. <bot386> Breadfruit Tree [Artocarpus altilis
(Park.) Fosb.(= communis Forst.)] (fruit) [Malaya-Polynesia] (ex.
northeastern Jamaica) <bot731> Breadfruit fruit (Artocarpus altilis
Fosberg) (vegetable, flour)
[Polynesia] Buckwheat, Fagopyrum sagittatum, is native to
Central Asia and still grows wild in Manchuria and Siberia. It is of relatively recent use when compared
to the other cereals, the earliest records being in Chinese writings of the
10th and 11th Centuries. Buckwheat
was introduced into Europe during the Middle Ages and was first cultivated in
14365. It is widely used on the
Continent especially in Russia where it constitutes one of the principal
foods. It was brought to America by
the European settlers and is now widely grown especially in Pennsylvania and
New York. The plant prefers a cool,
moist climate and thrives best in sandy well-drained soil. However it will grow in dry and arid
regions and areas with very poor soil and drainage. It is a small branching annual. The stems are smooth and succulent with alternate hastate
leaves. The inflorescence is a raceme
bearing small white or pinkish flowers.
The fruit is a three-cornered achene that resembles a beechnut. The seed or groats are hulled and ground
and the starchy flour is used for porridge, soups and to make pancakes. The whole grains, middlings, or flour are
also fed to livestock and poultry and the straw is used for feed and
bedding. Buckwheat is also grown as a
fertilizer crop, cover crop, and catch crop.
The flowers are an important source of honey. The crop is planted late in the spring to
avoid frosts, and is harvested in August and September. Buckwheat is a source of Rutin, a glucoside that has been used in the treatment of
capillary fragility associated with hypertension or high blood pressure. Quinoa, Chenopodium quinoa, is a staple food of
natives in South America. The plant
is an animal herb that grows to a height of 4-6 feet and resembles the common
pigweed. It is native to Peru and was
used in great quantities by the Incas.
The Spanish explorers found nearly all of the nations using it. It is grown in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia
where it is cultivated at altitudes up to 13,000 ft. The plants produce a large crop of white,
red, or black seeds, which mature in 5-6 months. They are very nutritious, containing 38 percent starch, 5
percent sugar, 19 percent protein and 5 percent fat. Whole seeds are used in soups, or are
ground into flour, which is made into bread or cakes. The seeds are also used in making
medicine, beer and as a poultry feed.
The ash is often mixed with coca leaves to give more flavor to the
latter. Quinoa has been introduced
into the United States where the thin leaves are used as a substitute for
spinach. |