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BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF TEPHRITIDAE
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The biological control efforts against fruit flies of
the genus Tephritidae have been extensive over the past half century, a
thorough review being given in Clausen (1987). However, as it becomes increasingly
apparent that the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata
(Wiedemann), and Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha
ludens (Loew) pose a
continued threat to California's agriculture through periodic invasions of our
borders, there is an urgent need to consider the application of alternative
methods to chemicals in eradication and control programs. The implementation
of effective biological controls at the sources of invasion as well as within
the state boundaries where breeding may occur, offers an environmentally
sound, non-polluting alternative. There is an urgent need to (1) search for,
procure and initially evaluate natural enemies of Mediterranean and Mexican
fruit flies fruit fly in natural ranges in central Africa and southern Mexico
(parasites, predators and pathogens); (2) introduce and study foreign natural
enemies in the adult stage, and evaluate their respective effectiveness under
field conditions in Hawaii, southern Mexico, and if applicable, California;
(3) attempt development of a mass production scheme of resident California
fruit flies (e.g., walnut husk fly) to serve as acceptable hosts for Medfly
natural enemies for use in laboratory study and periodic colonization efforts
in infested areas of California, and (4) to test the feasibility of building
a culture bank of Medfly and Mexican fruit fly natural enemies on resident
California fruit flies for use in conjunction with other eradication and
control methods (e.g., sterile-male releases, adult fly baiting) during
periodic invasions of these pests and in anticipation of their possible
permanent establishment in the State of California. The fruit flies of the family Tephritidae constitute a
group of agricultural pests of worldwide importance, as they attack a wide
range of fruits and vegetables. The most important are the several species of
Dacus and Ceratitis, which occur in many
countries of warm temperate and subtropical climates; Anastrepha, an American genus occurring from Mexico and the
West Indies through South America; and Rhagoletis,
with a more restricted host range, occurring in the north temperate
region Legner & Goeden (1987). The
Mediterranean fruit fly, although eradicated periodically from the state of
Florida where it had "peninsular" distribution, and recently from
California where it repeatedly reappears, is presently firmly established in
southern Mexico. There it has been temporarily contained by a massive
sterile-male and parasite release effort by the U. S. Department of
Agriculture. The appearance of Anastrepha
in southern Baja California during the past two years suggests that it may
eventually move north and pose a continuous threat along the Mexican border.
Another chronic threat has been the permanently established population in the
Hawaiian Islands, from which periodic accidental invasions of California are
thought to occur. Recently, Carey & Dowell (1989), Greathead & Waage
(1983), Gilstrap et al (1987), Wharton (1989) and Wong & Ramadan (1990)
have noted that further biological control efforts are definitely justified
against fruit flies. Several studies have investigated the potential
economic of C. capitata in California and
elsewhere. Details on this and various abatement tactics may be found in
UC/AID (1977) Galt & Albertson (1981), Carey (1982, 1984), Gilmore
(1983), Dowell (1983), Schreibner (1983), Spitler & Couey (1983),
Williamson (1983), Krainaker et al. (1987) and Carter (1990). The need for investigation into the biological control
of fruit flies in Hawaii, Mexico and California is ever more important as it
becomes recognized that insecticides, although offering expedient and
predictable results under certain conditions, are often inadequate and at
least perceived as dangerous, if not physically dangerous to wildlife and
humans alike. As problems involving insecticidal residues and insect
resistance to chemicals continue to increase, many programs directed at the
control of fruit flies must ultimately be modified with increased dosages and
costs to such an extent that they invariably arouse the concern and ire of
naturalist and conservationist organizations. A case in point is the fire ant
eradication program. By 1959 extensive damage to wildlife and domestic
animals had positively been attributed to the effects of several insecticides
used in the program (Clawson 1959). Fire ant control was finally declared
unsuccessful in 1960, and in some states, fire ant numbers were actually
reported to have increased since the eradication program began (Byrd 1960,
Cottam 1959). Presently, a new effort to control fire ant is being attempted
with natural enemies imported from Brazil and Argentina. Some investigators believe that the Mediterranean and Mexican
fruit flies are already permanently established in California and that unless
the current eradication effort is greatly increased, it is just a matter of
time before at least one species, Medfly, will spread throughout the state
(Barinaga 1990). The malathion baits currently in use against them may not be
potent enough for fast eradication, as it is recognized that Medflies will
not eat the bait unless that is the only substance placed in their cages
(Citrograph 1990). Under outdoor conditions they may prefer to seek out clean
ripening fruit. Specific Examples Mediterranean Fruit Fly.--The
Mediterranean fruit fly is a major pest throughout the Mediterranean region,
portions of Africa, the Middle East, Central and South America, Mexico, and Hawaii,
and has become established in Australia. In France, it is able to persist
from year to year only in areas bordering the Mediterranean, yet survival is
reported in Austria, where severe winters, with continuous frosts, can cause
up to 90% mortality of the pupae (Clausen 1978). Although parasitic insects
have been imported against it, 95% of the species were obtained from areas
outside the fly's accepted native range in central Africa and Madagascar.
However, some reductions in infestations are attributable to natural enemy
activity in the invaded areas, especially when parasitoids are mass released
as biotic insecticides (Wong & Ramadan 1990, Wong et al. 1990). The medfly was first described fin 1824 and was first
noted as a pest in citrus in 1829 from shipments of oranges to England from
the Azores. The fly spread throughout the world over the next 100 years and
was continually noted as a destructive pest wherever it was found. The first
program for the biological control of medfly was undertaken by the government
of Western Australia in 1902 with the engagement of George Compere to search
for natural enemies and to determine the aboriginal home of the medfly.
Unfortunately Compere was never able to acertain the aboriginal home nor did
he establish the parasitoids he collected from India, Sri Lanka and Brazil in
Western Australia. The medfly invaded Hawaii in 1910 and soon thereafter
the Board of Commissioners hired Filipi Silvestri to again search for natural
enemies of this fly. It was determined by experts of the day that collections
should concentrate in Western Africa. Therefore, Silvestri traveled for eight
months through West and East Africa and South Africa. He found only six
specimens of the medfly on the entire journey, but reared many parasitoids
from other fruit-infesting tephritids collected along the way. He managed to
establish four species in Hawaii: Opius
concolor Szepligeti, Biosteres tryoni (Cameron), Coptera
silvestrii Kieffer and Dirhinus anthracina Walker. Two more missions over the next 30
years were sent out in hopes of obtaining parasitoids, but only Tetrastichus giffardianus Silvestri and Biosteres fullaway (Silvestri) were established. Other biological control programs were undertaken in
several countries where the medfly was firmly established, but these programs
have not been well documented, and the extent of control of any of the
parasitoid species is virtually unknown, the notable exception being Hawaii.
Even in Hawaii control was never noteworthy and the medfly proglem was
finally overshadowed by the introduction of Dacus dorsalis
Hendel. For North America the answer to the medfly invasions starting in 1929
was complete eradication by means of fruit stripping and poisoned bait sprays.
The success of these early and subsequent biological
control programs against medfly has been variable (Gilstrap & Hart 1987,
Wharton & Gilstrap 1983). In Hawaii, a cooperative biological control program
initiated in 1948 involved the release of 32 entomophagous species to compat
both medfly and the oriental fruit fly. Three parasitoids, Biosteres longicaudatus (Ashmead), B. vandenboschi (Fullaway), and B. oophilus
(Fullaway) became widespread and abundant (Bess et al. 1961). During
1966-1968, parasitization of the medfly and the oriental fruit fly was high
(ca. 70%); it was mainly due to the egg-pupal parasitoid, B. oophilus (Haramoto & Bess 1970). During 1978-1981, Biosteres oophilus was still the predominant parasitoid as it
accounted for ca. 80% of the total parasitization. Occasionally the
larval-pupal parasitoids, Biosteres
longicaudatus and B. tryoni (Cameron) achieved a parasitization of 32 and 8%,
respectively (Wong et al. 1984). Extensive fruit collections done between
1949-1985 showed that Jerusalem cherry, coffee and peach were among the most
important hosts of the medfly. These fruits yielded more than 100 larvae/Kg
of infested fruits (Liquido et al. 1990; Nishida et al. 1985). The fruits
that yielded a high number of medfly larvae were elliptical to spherical and
yellowish to reddish. They had a diameter of 1-7 cm and a weight of 1-30
grams. Most of these hosts belonged to five plant families: Myrtaceae,
Rutaceae, Rosaceae, Sapotaceae and Solanaceae (Liquido et al. 1990). In Costa Rica a classical biological control program
was initiated in 1955. During 1979-1980 parasitoids were collected from
<10% of C. capitata populations. These
were two introduced braconids, B.
longicaudatus and B. oophilus, and two indigenous cynipids, Ganaspis carvalhoi (Dettmer) and Odontosema anastrephae
(Borgmeier) (Wharton et al. 1981). An exploration for medfly parasitoids
conducted in West-Central Africa during 1980-1982 showed that C. capitata occurred in low frequency in coffee plantations
in Cameroon. Parasitization of tephritids in coffee by braconids ranged from
10-56% (Steck et al. 1986). In Guatemala infestation of C. capitata
was serious in coffee and tangerine. The rest of the fruits were mainly
infested by Anastrepha spp.
(Eskafi 1988, 1990). Parasitization rate of C. capitata
and Anastrepha spp. was low,
ranging from 0.04 to 7.95%. The most common parasitoids recovered from both
flies were B. longicaudatus and Doryctobracon crawfordi (Viereck) (Eskafi
1990). The behavior of the ectoparasitoid Muscidifurax raptor
(Girault & Sanders) in searching for the potential host C. capitata pupae was analyzed under laboratory conditions.
The searching efficiency of M.
raptor females decreased with
increasing density. The proportion of avoidance of superparasitism was 0.615.
The response to a high parasitoid density was to increase the proportion of
males in the progeny, as males searching for mates interfered and decreased
the searching activity of the females (Podoler & Menzel 1977, 1979). The
medfly was susceptible to the Mexican strain of the nematode Steinernema feltiae. Emerging adults and
pupae were not susceptible to the nematode, but the third instars (prior to
pupating in the soil) suffered high mortalities (50-90%) when exposed to high
nematode concentrations (150,000 - 500,000 nematodes/cup) (Lindegren &
Vail 1986). Field exposure of mature larvae to a dose of 500 nematodes/cm2
yielded high mortality of C.
capitata (Lindegren et al.
1990). In addition to the hymenopterous parasitoids and insect pathogenic
nematodes, arthropod predators such as ants could play an important role in
reducing fruit fly populations. Under laboratory conditions, the argentine
ant, Iridomyrmex humilis (Mayr) caused 50%
mortality of medfly pupae after a 10 min. attack. However, ant predation
could be important only in localized areas; it is not adequate to regulate
medfly populations (Wong et al. 1984). Typically, the most effective natural enemies of an
insect occur in regions where the pest evolved. The natural range of
Mediterranean fruit fly is the sub-Saharan central African region, including
the Island of Madagascar. Although no information is available from
Madagascar, a number of promising natural enemies have been discovered in
Central Africa (Bianchi & Krauss 1936, 1937; Gilstrap & Hart 1987,
Greathead 1976, Silvestri 1914, Steck et al. 1986, van Zwaluwenburg 1936,
1937, Wharton, 1989, Wharton & Gilstrap 1983). However, because of
technological difficulties associated with transportation and culture, only
two species attacking Ceratitis
capitata have been
successfully translocated out of central Africa. A concentrated effort to
locate natural enemies there might yield the kind of species capable of
regulating this pest at low densities, as it has been known to be rare in
that general region since the early 1900's (Silvestri 1913). We believe that
parasitic Hymenoptera are the most effective natural enemies of Mediterranean
fruit flies. At least six species of fruit flies in the genus Ceratitis are known from
central Africa, and numerous parasitic Hymenoptera have been reported active
on them at very low host densities (Table 1, Silvestri 1913, Clausen 1978, F.
Gilstrap, pers. comm.). These have not been tested by entomologists in
California because the Mediterranean fruit fly has been quarantined.
Therefore, promising species of natural enemies for Medfly might be found
among these related species. Also, there has been no concentrated effort to locate
disease organisms, such as viruses, bacteria and fungi, which might prove
invaluable in eradication campaigns. Mexican fruit
fly.--Some of the natural enemies of oriental and
Mediterranean fruit flies have shown activity on Anastrepha spp. in southern Mexico, and may be influential
in partial biological control of that species (Aluja et al. 1990). However,
there have been no formal attempts to obtain natural enemies from other areas
where different species of Anastrepha occur, such as South America. Two species of parasitic insects are already proven and
available as biotic insecticides (augmentive releases) against Medfly. These
are Diachasmimorpha longicaudata and D. tryoni, which have been used with some success in Mexico
and Hawaii (USDA 1988, Wong et al. 1990a,b). The use of these parasites in
lieu of malathion during the establishment phase of specific natural enemies
from central Africa, would greatly aid their survival and while providing
some economic control of Medfly. Table 1. Known parasitic species attacking
fruitflies of the genus Ceratitis
in their natural range in Central Africa. ___________________________________________________________________ Parasite species Host stage attacked ___________________________________________________________________ Biosteres caudatus Szepligeti larva Diachasma fullawayi Silvestri larva Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) larva Diachasmimorpha tryoni (Cameron) larva Dirhinus ehrhorni Silvestri pupa Dirhinus giffardii Silvestri pupa Ganaspis sp. larva? Halticoptera sp. larva? Hedylus giffardii Silvestri larva? Hedylus sp. larva? Galesus silvestrii Kieffer pupa Microbracon celer (Szepligeti)
larva? Opius humilis Silvestri larva Opius inconsuetus Silvestri larva Opius perproximus Silvestri larva Opius n. sp. larva Spalangia afra Silvestri
pupa Tetrastichus dacicida Silvestri larva Tetrastichus giffardii Silvestri larva Tetrastichus oxyurus Silvestri larva Tetrastichus n. sp. larva ________________________________________________________________________ Misc. Fruitflies.--Several
species of Rhagoletis
are very important pests of cultivated cherries in North America and Europe,
with some species having been considered as subjects for biological control,
despite the low economic threshold. Infestation rates of less than 0.2% are
currently required for commercial marketing of cherries in the United States.
Four species of parasitoids associated with the Oriental fruit fly, Dacus dorsalis Hendel, were introduced against such fruit flies.
These included Opius
longicaudatus compensans (Silv.), Opius longicaudatus farmosanus
(Full.), Opius oophilus Full., and Opius longicaudatus novacaledonicus
Full. These parasitoids were introduced from Hawaii and released against Rhagoletis indifferens Cueran and Rhagoletis
fausta Osten Sak in Oregon
and Washington in the 1950's (Clausen 1956b). However, none became
established probably because they all originated in tropical regions. A
parasitoid of R. cerasi, the European cherry
fruit fly, was imported against the eastern cherry fruit fly, R. cingulata Loew during 1959-64 in New Jersey, without
successful establishment. Other species including Biosteres sublaevis
Wharton, Coptera occidentalis and Phygadeuon wiesmanni are under investigation in California and Oregon
(Croft & AliNiazee 1996, Legner & Goeden (1987).). REFERENCES: [Additional references
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